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|MK7/CSc/fNCf]
Household SEwmd
will!
Home DiiESSMiVKl
Bertha Banni
T^c^ s'frlr.u
'tosavHti coueae Xibratg
jJf,,,^uMjU...KM^.
,4*-^^,,
"_c-5-S-7r. 7(?
ibarvarb college Xtbrars
...^'U^*f*^^J^,t^...fL4i^.
-vXt^lw,,
HOUSEHOLD SEWING
WITH
HOME DRESSMAKING
DOMESTIC SCIENCE MANUALS
HOUSEHOLD SEWING
WITH
HOME DRESSMAKING
BY
BEETHA BANNEK
CERTI7ICATBD BY THE BADISCHE FBAUENVEREIN, KARLSRUHE, BADEK,
TRAINING TEACHEB OF SEWING AND DRESSMAKING AT THE
LIVERPOOL TECHNICAL COLLEGE FOR WOMEN
LONGMANS, GKEEN, AND CO.
39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON
NEW YORK AND BOMBAY
1898
73
, jic 6'^^ r. T ?
^oumaJuXL PiJ-'[>-ti-<-L'^ULt
d-
DEDICATED
BY GRACIOUS PERMISSION TO
HER IMPERIAL AND ROYAL HIGHNESS
THE GEAND DUCHESS OF BADEN
TO WHOM THE SCHEME OF HOUSEHOLD SEWING
AS NOW ADOPTED IN ENGLAND
IS SO GREATLY INDEBTED
PEEFACE.
We have every reason to believe that this Manual
of Household Sewing and Home Dressmaking will
supply a much-felt want, and be welcomed as a
valuable addition to the Scheme of Domestic Science
Education. The experiment, suggested by a visit
to Karlsruhe, of making "mending, patching, and
darning " a branch of continued, and of Technical
Education for Women, in England, has proved a
complete success, and we trust will aid the ** Maker
of the Home " in all classes of society.
Many complaints have come from working men
that their wives and daughters could neither mend
nor patch, and that there was nowhere to send them
to leant. Now that reproach is to a very great
extent wiped away, and both Afternoon and Evening
Technical Classes for Women offer opportunities, at
a very small cost, to any wishing to learn. Such a
Manual as this will be useful not only to Teachers,
but equally so to learners anxious to make good use
of the knowledge obtained from the lessons given in
the classes.
FANNY L. CALDEE.
49 Canning Street,
Liverpool, October, 1897.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
PAGE
OTITCHBS ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1
CHAPTER II.
Plain Sewing 36
CHAPTER III.
Seams, Bands, Gussets, Tucks and Bindings 47
CHAPTER IV.
Fastenings 62
CHAPTER V.
Patching and Dabning 72
CHAPTER VI.
Clothing — Clothing Materials 94
CHAPTER VII.
Dyeing, Widths and Identification op Materials ... 103
CHAPTER VIII.
Dressmaking 119
CHAPTER IX.
Finishing 131
CHAPTER X.
tSKIBTB ... .«• ... ••• ... ••• ••• ••• ••• A^w
xNDEX ... ... ... ••• ... •»» ••• ••• ••• At/O
GLOSSARY.
II.
III.
IV.
Bias.
Circular.
Diameter.
The practical application of the following words, together with the
divisions of a tape measure, should be thoroughly understood before
attempting to study the contents of this book.
I. Angle. A comer. The space enclosed by two lines meeting
at a point
Cut on the cross. Slanting.
Bound.
A line passing through the centre of a circle to join
the outside edges or circumference. Literally, the
greatest length or width in a round figure.
Slanting. A slanting line drawn from the opposite
comers of a square to divide it into two triangles.
Straight with the horizon. Used to describe a line
drawn across from side to side.
A shape or figure having six sides.
A figure having four straight sides, two of which
are long and two short.
Running in the same direction. Used to describe
two fines equally distant all the way from one
another, and which will never join however far
they may be drawn.
X. Perpendicular. A straight line drawn down in the opposite direction
to a horizontal one.
V. Diagonal.
VI. Horizontal.
VII. Hexagon.
VIII. Oblong.
IX. Parallel.
XI. Right Angle.
XII. Rhomboid.
XIII. Triangle.
XIV. Vertical.
XV. Warp.
XVI. Weft or Woof.
An angle formed by the letter T or at the corner of
a square. A perpendicular line falling on to a
horizontal in such a manner as to make the spaces
at each side equal.
A four-sided figure somewhat resembling an oblong,
but its two opposite sides, though equal in length,
are not exactly opposite (as in an oblong), so that
tiie two end lines slant both the same way.
A three-cornered figure. A figure having three sides
enclosing three angles.
An upright line.
The name of the threads of any material which run
the same way as the selvedge.
The name of the threads of any material which run
across in the opposite direction to the selvedge.
HOUSEHOLD SEWING WITH HOME
DRESSMAKING.
CHAPTEE I.
STITCHES.
The stitches here mentioned only include what may
conveniently be termed " domestic " stitches, consisting
of those usually required for ordinary household sew-
ing. Decorative art embroidery, ecclesiastical needle-
work, lace-making, etc., all belong to the highest
branches of sewing, and have all been (more or less)
developed from the primary stitches, the link between
these being supplied in drawn-thread work and white
embroidery. With regard to the primary stitches, it is
almost impossible to distinguish between those belonging
to plain sewing and those required for dressmaking, as
many of them are used simultaneously for both kinds of
work ; there is, however, a distinct method of applying
them to different materials.
The first necessity of all good sewing is strength in
order to resist the strain in wear and during washing ;
neatness naturally is also an important addition. To
ensure those points, all plain sewing should have the
stitches taken well through the material and showing
clearly on both sides, regularity and evenness being
I ,
2 HOUSEHOLD SEWING,
more important than minute, insecure, uneven sewing.
With the exception of washing dresses, custom has
decreed that all dressmaking sewing should be practi-
cally invisible, increased neatness and finish being the
result. Owing to the thickness and elasticity of woollen
goods, they require very much larger stitches than cotton
fabrics, and for parts where there is no very great strain,
slip stitching, back stitching, and running are much used.
Knots at the end of the cotton are only allowable in
plain sewing for tacking ; in dressmaking, however, it is
frequently wiser to employ them, because the fastening
off of the thread is apt to draw and pucker the soft
woolly materials, but they must always be placed under-
neath, and not allowed to be seen. When the sewing
is completed, a few stitches are usually worked back-
wards to secure it firmly, and the end of the cotton, if
possible, placed under a fold or hem. The remaining
thread is then cut off with a pair of scissors, and not
broken, for fear of loosening the fastening off stitches.
The old-fashioned plan of sewing on the first finger
of the left hand is being rapidly superseded by the more
rational method of sewing between the first and second
fingers. This involves the work being held between the
thumb and first finger in front and the second and third
fingers behind, with suflicient space left between the first
and second fingers to allow room for the easy movement
of the needle in making the stitches. Certain stitches, of
course, require special methods of holding, and these are
dealt with separately, under the working of each. The
thimble is placed on the second finger of the right hand,
and the needle held with the thumb and first finger, with
the eye resting against the thimble ; any portion of the
thimble may be used, but the part close to the top on
STITCHES. 3
the side nearest to the first finger is usually considered
the most convenient. When the stitch is being drawn
through, the cotton should be drawn up towards the
right shoulder, either over or under the third or fourth
finger. The difficulties of each stitch will be greatly
lessened if at the beginning they are learnt and practised
on single thread canvas. To thread a needle, hold it in
the left hand against the chest, bend the head down-
wards, take the cotton in the right hand, and place the
end through the eye of the needle. By putting the
hands and head in this position it will be found much
easier to thread the needle. The following three
divisions of stitches comprise most of those required
for plain sewing and dressmaking : —
1. Plain.
(1)
Running.
(2)
Stifcching.
(3)
Back Stitching.
(4)
Seaming.
(5)
Hemming.
(6)
Herringbone.
(7)
Gathering.
(8)
Whipping.
(9)
Old German Seam.
2. Ornamental.
(1)
Feather and Coral Stitches.
(2)
Chain Stitch.
(3)
Cross Stitch.
W
Buttonholing.
(5)
Embroidery and Outlining.
(6)
Hem Stitching and Drawn-thread Work.
(7)
Knotting or Seeding.
(8)
Honeycombing,
(9)
Smocking.
4 HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
3. Dresamaklng.
(1) Tsicking and Baisting.
(2) Overcasbing.
(3) Slip Stitching.
{i) Back Hamming,
(5) Shiiriiig and Oauging.
(6) BiosBiug.
(7) Fan of Stitches.
Plain.
Ranning. — This is undoabtedly the simplest of all
sMtches, and bo. should be the first one learnt. With
FiQ. l-Strlking.
children, the first point in lecirning to sew is to gain
sufficient power to put the needle into the material,
in order to take up a certain amount on the needle and
then to draw it through, and until they have been taught
STITCHES. 5
to control their fingers even to this small amount, all
further sewing is impossible. But when the fingers are
once strong enough to draw the needle through and to
hold the work somewhat in the right position, then the
training of the eye to sew in a straight line may be
begun.
Striking a line by a thread on a piece of coarse soft
calico is naturally the simplest method, and the child
should practise on this until she is able to keep the
stitches tolerably well on the raised line ; and then,
when both the hands and eye are so far under control,
the actual size and construction of the stitches may be
safely taught.
The German method of ** striking '* the calico with a
pin instead of drawing threads out or creasing the seams
by hand is very simple, and saves much labour. The
method is as follows : Hold the left hand above the
material, taking a small portion near to the place for
striking between the thumb and first finger ; place a
moderate sized pin between the thumb and first finger of
the right hand, draw it gently along one thread towards
the worker underneath the material, and the result will
be a raised line on which the sewing may be done.
■■-5--p
, '^^^
_^ •
FiQ. 2— Running.
The rule for a running stitch is that the amount taken
up on the needle should correspond exactly to the space
left or passed over between each of these amounts,
taking up two threads and passing over two being the
6 HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
common regulation, and for very fine materials increasing
the threads to three or even four. With regard to
running on woollen, twilled, or materials cut on the
bias, the threads, of course, cannot be counted ; hence
the necessity for training the eye sufficiently well to be
able to gauge successfully the distances between and size
of the stitches. In actual practice, when the running
has to be carried through two thicknesses of material, or
through close woollen fabrics, it has been found inex-
pedient to adhere strictly to the general rule, as it fre-
quently makes a smaller stitch on the under side ; in
such oases, therefore, it is better to take up a little more
material than is passed over. Eunning is worked in a
straight line from the right hand to the left ; it is used
chiefly for tucks and seams, and for certain parts of
dressmaking where light sewing is required.
Stitching. — Machine stitches represent this stitch as
far as the right side is concerned, but they are totally
dissimilar on the wrong side.
A B
Fig. 3— Stitching.
A, Right side; B, Wrong side.
It is frequently called back stitching, because the
needle is taken backwards in making each stitch, but as
it leads to endless confusion between this and back
stitching proper, it is wiser to keep to the first name.
The stitch is worked in a straight line, taking four
threads upon the needle, two being taken backwards
away from the worker and two forwards, in front of
where the cotton was originally brought out.
STITCHES. 7
The needle, when taking the two threads back, must
be put into exactly the same thread as the last stitch, so
as to leave no threads between ; the cotton is kept either
entirely to the right or entirely to the left of the needle
to prevent splitting the stitches on the wrong side, and
the stitches on the top should be uniform in size and
tightness. The stitch is invariably worked on the right
side of doubled material, towards the worker, and is
exceedingly useful where strength is required. It is
much used for joining seams, strengthening and orna-
menting bands, sewing on buttons, and sometimes for
tucks and setting on tapes. The cotton may be finished
and joined in various ways ; it is most usual to carry the
old thread to the wrong side and run it through the last
few stitches, then bring the new thread up to the required
distance from the last stitch (generally two threads) with
the end slipped between the fold of the part about to be
stitched. Where the stitching is only required for orna-
ment, a thread may be drawn out from the material,
which will make the sewing easier, but when required
for strength, the thread should not be drawn but raised
by striking or creasing.
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FiQ. 4— Back Stitching.
Back stitching. — This is also known as half-stitching
and half-back -stitching, but for convenience the first name
is adopted. The needle in working is carried back two
threads and forward four, making in all six threads on
the needle. This will leave a space of two threads
8
HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
between each stitch on the right side ; in other words,
the needle is carried back half-way towards the last stitch
and brought forward twice this distance. It is more
quickly worked than stitching, and is much used in
dressmaking. In all other points it is worked like
stitching.
Seaming. — Many people call this stitch sewing and
top sewing, because it is the method by which two pieces
of material are oversewn together to form a seam. For
example, selvedges are sewn together in gores and in
making pillowcases, and, used in conjunction with a fell,
it forms the side seams of many undergarments. The
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Fig. 5 — Seaming.
stitch is worked on the right side, and is one of the
strongest used in plain needlework. In shape it forms a
true diagonal stitch on the right and a straight one on
the wrong side ; it is worked from right to left, and
on canvas usually covers a square of two threads as
follows: — Begin at the bottom right-hand side of the
square and carry the cotton up and across it diagonally ;
then take up the threads which form the left side of the
square, with the needle pointed towards the worker. In
seaming the needle forms exactly a right angle to the
join, that is, pointing direct to the worker ; if worked at
any other angle it will cause one side of the material to
pucker. The work is held in a somewhat different
STITCHES. 9
manner to the former stitches, and, except in the case
of beginners, there is no need to tack the two pieces, but
only to pin the edges together occasionally.
To hold work for seaming, first bring the left hand
opposite the chest, raise the right hand and elbow to the
same level, then lay the two edges to be joined evenly
along the front of the left first finger, and hold it secm*ely
with the thumb. On no acccnmt allow the sewing to be
worked with the material over the first finger, as it causes
the upper portion to pucker ; and for the same reason,
holding it round the point of the fingers is not advisable.
Sufficient material must be held between the fork of the
thumb and first finger to keep it firm, and the remainder
steadied with the other unemployed fingers ; when com-
mencing, allow the end of the thread to lie along the top
of the seam, and sew it over for about half an inch. For
joining, allow both the ends to He in the same direction
on the top of the seam, previously taking half a stitch
with each so as to bring them both to the centre of the
joins, and then work a few stitches over them. When
the seaming is finished the seam should be flattened with
a presser or thumb nail.
Hemming. — A hem is a double fold of material used
to protect raw edges; the width when finished varies
according to taste, but the first fold rarely diverges from
one- eighth to one-fourth of an inch. The stitch employed
to secure a hem is called hemming, and is one of the most
difficult in plain sewing. Straightness, regularity and
right slant are its most important points, and should be
aimed at rather than extreme fineness. The stitch forms
a V, the slant on the right-hand side appearing on the
wrong side, and the corresponding half on the left being
taken to the right side through the material and edge
lo HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
of the hem to the wrong. The slope for the V variea
slightly, and many people determine it by putting so
many stitches to the inch, say eight to twelve for ordinary
calico and sisteen to eighteen for fine muelin. It is
worked on the wrong side from right to left ; every stitch
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Fio. 6 — Hemming.
(2) Single thread hemmiDg.
should show clearly through on the right side ; splitting
the threads and puckering must he carefully avoided. In
commencing and joining the cotton, the ends are tucked
away beneath the fold of the hem, and the work is held
as for stitching or running.
Herringbone. — Owing to the thickness of fiannel, this
special stitch is employed to protect the raw edges instead
of turning them in as for ordinary heme ; also being a
very loose stitch, it does not draw or pucker the woolly
fabric and allows for shrinkage in washing. The material
is held in the usual manner and worked away from the
chest. In width the stitch generally covers four threads,
with two threads taken up alternately on each side.
When working, the needle should point towards the
worker ; the bottom of the stitch or threads taken up is
brought in a direct line with the top of the preceding one
on the other side, forming a cross with the cotton. On the
right Bide it appears like two rows of running, with four
threads between, each row having the alternate thread
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taken and passed over. The lower side of the stitch
should come exactly under the raw edge of the folded
material, the upper portion being taken right through the
doubled thicknesses of the hem. For joining the cotton,
a back stitch is taken on the wrong side, or else the ends
slipped between the folds.
OattaflFing. — Gathering is a stitch used to draw to-
gether a portion of material which requires to be
FiQ. 8 — Gathering.
placed into a smaller space; this is necessary to give
ease and looseness to certain parts of garments, for the
12 HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
sake of freedom as well as for gracefulness of movement.
As a stitch it closely resembles running, only the amount
of material taken up on the needle should only be half
the quantity of that passed over, taking up two threads
and passing four, being the rule for average materials.
It is always worked on the right side, in order to facilitate
the after stroking necessary before putting on a band, and
is generally put about one-quarter of an inch from the edge
of the material. Gathering is worked in a straight line
from right to left, the place for the sewing being marked
by striking with a pin when the material is on the straight,
and by creasing when it is cut on the cross. In order to
place the gathers evenly in the band, the half and quarters
of the material should be marked before gathering.
Whipping OP Whip Stitch. — This is a variety of
gathering used chiefly for frills. When completed it
presents somewhat the appearance of a whipcord, hence
probably its name ; owing to the cheap ready-made
frillings of the day, it is not now in such general use as for-
merly. The frills for underclothing are frequently made of
cambric or nainsook, one -quarter of a yard being sufficient
to trim one nightdress ; besides being economical to buy,
it will also wash and wear well. The material for whip-
ping is cut the weft way, because it rolls more easily, and
the outer edge is hemmed or hem-stitched. The inner
edge, that is, the one sewn on the garment, is rolled over
on to the wrong side with the left thumb and first finger,
and the roll should be as small and fine as possible. The
cotton is brought over the roll from the wrong side with
a long slanting stitch, and then through from the right
side under the roll to the wrong with a short slanting
stitch. No very definite rule can be given for the size of
this whip stitch, as it depends more or less upon the
STITCHES. 13
thicknesa of the material and the amount allowed for
fulness ; but usually the long Bbitch is about four timeB
the length of the shorter one, and the average amount of
(a) Stitch ; {») Wliip)i«d hem.
material allowed for folnesB is twice the required length
of the frill. The frill is seamed to the band with the
stitches taken as far aa poaaible over the whipping.
Old Ctennaa Seam. — This stitch is very little used
and consequently is not well known. It is a method of
joining two eelvedges tc^ther, and because of its extreme
flatness is often employed in turning sheets. The two
selvedges in working are plaoed edge to edge over the
left forefinger with the right side uppermost.
14 HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
It is worked like berringbone stitch away from the
worker ; the needle is placed under each selvedge alter-
nately, and taken two or three threads deep through to
the right side in a slanting direction, pointing respectively
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FiQ. 10— OldGermt
to the right and left thumbs. When finished the two
selvedges should exactly meet and the cotton cross from
side to side between them. This stitch is sometimes used
for pillowcases, gores in undergarments, and joins in
trimmings such as muslin frills, embroideries, etc. ; it is
also sometimes called " fine drawing ".
Obnauentai..
Coral, Feather of Tree Stitoh. — These names are
no doubt derived from the similarity of the stitch to the
three things. It makes an exceedingly pretty finish in
all kinds of sewing, and is much to be recommended for
bands instead of stitching, as the working necessitates
so much less strain on the eye. It is usually worked in
crochet or embroidery cotton on cotton fabrics, and in
silk, wool or flax tlitea4 on woollen ones. The stitch is
worked on the right side of the material, towards the
worker, the needle being taken alternately on the right
and left sides of the pattern, and the cotton from the last
stitch always carried uwier the needle so as to form a
loop stitch. The number of threads taken up for each
stitch varies according to the kind of material ; for
Fid. 11— Feather Stitches.
(a) Single straight ; \b) Double straight ; [c) Single aloiitcd ;
id) Double Bluited.
working on canvas two is the usual number allowed, and
the rule of missing two between each stitch bo as to
bring the top of the one stitch in a direct line with the
bottom of the preceding one is the one generally followed.
When working on textiles, however, it is much more
practical to gauge the distances with the eye, because
in some fabrics counting the threads would be utterly
i6 HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
impossible, and it certainly renders the labour more
tedioae. The patterns may be varied by taking a
diagonal instead of a straight stitch, and also by making
two, three or even four stitches on each side. Many
authorities affirm that the word coral should be apphed
only when the stitch is taken straight ; others again say
that feather stitch proper must have two or more stitches
on each side, and that when only one is taken, whether
straight or diagonal, it should be called coral stitch.
Whichever was originally correct, all the different
varieties are universally called feather stitch, and the
najae tree stitch is almost entirely obsolete.
Chain Stitch. — Chain stitch is sometimes used for
ornamental feather stitching, but being much narrower
and closer, it is not nearly so ^ective. In working,
bring the cotton throi^h bo the right side, put the needle
back into exactly the same place, and take up two or
more threads, towards the troritet ; then carry the cotton
Tib. IS-duun Stitch.
from the left side under the needle to the right, draw the
needle through, and a loop stitch will be the result. For
every new stitch the needle must be put inside the loop
into exactly the same hole &om which the cotton was
STITCHES.
»7
drawn out, and brought forward the required number of
threads outside the loop, with the cotton drawn under-
neath. When finiehed it appears very Uke a crochet
chain stitch ; chain-stitch machines also represent it very
accurately. It is worked in silk, crochet or embroidery
cotton, and is frequently used for marking linen,
Ctobb Btitoh. — In plain needlework this stitch ia
almost exclusively used for marking, and in dressmaking
as an ornamental method of sewing in waistbands. On
the right side it represents a series of diagonal crosses,
and OD the wrong horizontal lines of stitching. Some
would advocate vertical lines on the back or wrong side,
but in continental schools, where marking is brought
to much greater perfection, and elaborate cross-stitch
patterns much more commonly seen, the former method
is adopted, as it is considered easier and more satis-
factory. The stitches when finished must all cross in
the same direction, the most usual way being to slant the
upper half of the stitch from the top left-hand comer
down to the bottom right-hand one ; the wrong side also
should be quite neat, and this will encourage the
economical use of the cotton. The process of working a
straight line of stitches on single thread canvas is as
t8 HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
follows : First, decide the Btarting point, bring the needle
up on to the right side two threads to the left of this
place. Secondly, take the needle up and across two
threads diagonally to the right. Thirdly, take up two
threads from this last point across the canvas to the left.
Fourthly, bring the needle down and across two threads
diagonally to the right, crossing the centre of the first
diagonal thread. Lastly, from this point on the bottom
at the right hand take up four threads horizontally to
the left, thus bringing the cotton two threads forward
beyond the stitch, in order to commence a second one.
In patterns and marking, where upright rows of stitches
occur, it is usual first to work the entire number to the
top with half-stitches, and then to come back over each
one to the bottom. Marking is better done in blue or
red ingrain cotton, so as to stand washing and boilicg.
Fio. 14— Buttonholing.
Battonholing. — This is also known as blanket stitch,
because it ia coarsely worked at the ends of blankets to
protect the raw edges. It is very frequently mistaken for
buttonhole stitch, which it very closely resembles, the
single purled edge being the only visible difference. It is
much used for scalloping, and also sometimes instead
of overcasting. The working, which "is very simple, is
nsually begun at the left side and" worked towards the
right, but if preferred, it is quite legitimate to follow the
GOQtrary direction. The needle is placed in the material
with the point towards the worker, and the cotton from
the last stitch always brought under it. It is worked In
cotton, silk, wool or flourishing thread, according to the
nature of the material, and makes a very pretty finish to
the edges of frills, bottom of underskirts, etc
Embroidery &lld Outline. — These two names are
used simultaneously, although they represent two slightly
different stitches. They are also known as stem stitch.
Pro, 1^-ia) Outliofl; (6) Embroidery.
as they are used for stems in art embroidery. They are
both worked away from the worker, with the needle
pointing to the chest, with two, three or four threads
taken up for each stitch. Each new stitch must exactly
join the preceding one, thus making the wrong side
appear like a row of stitching. The only difference be-
tween embroidery and outline stitching is, that in the
former the thread is always kept to the right of the
needle, and in the latter always to the left ; the stitches
when finished appear to slant in a corresponding manner.
Hem Stitohing and Drawn-Thread Work.— Hem
stitching is a fancy method of stitching hems, and is
HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
niuch employed for handkerctiiefs, aprons, teaclothg, etc.,
as well as tor the foundation of many drawn-thread work
patterns. It is worked in various waye, the following
German method perhaps being the easiest. However,
Pio. 16-— (a) First process ; {*) Suuoiid
before the hem stitching can be done the hems require to
be turned down, and, if corners occur, they are arranged
in one of two ways. The first is as in an ordinary band-
kerchief where the hem stitching is carried through the
hem to the outside edge. In this small pieces of the under-
STITCHES.
21
neath portion of the hem must be cut away (Fig. 17) so that
they may be less bulky and easier to work. In the second
T
I
I
I
t
Fig. 17 — Comers of Hems.
kind the hem stitching is only taken to the inside of the
hem and not through it (Fig. 18). The hem is turned
Fig. 18 — (1) Portion of corner cut away as far as a-b ; (2) Fold into two
and sew c d together.
back on to its wrong side, and the corners sewn together
diagonally down the centre ; then the superfluous material
22 HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
is cut away, the seam flattened, and the hem turned back
to its normal position, when both sides should lie quite
flat, with a slanting seam down the centre of the comer.
The number of threads drawn out for hem stitching varies
according to the quality of the material, two or three being
sufficient for a fairly coarse linen ; if the latter kind of
corners are used, the threads for drawing out should be cut
a little distance (about half an inch) from the comer, and
the short ends thus left drawn out and tucked away under
the hem. The stitch is then worked on the wrong side,
the hem (which is better tacked just to meet the drawn
threads) being held towards the worker and resting along
the left forefinger and thumb, with the remaining ma-
terial steadied with the other three fingers. Beginning
at the right side, the cotton is first secured by a small
hemming stitch, brought round to the left, and the re-
quired number of threads taken up on the needle from
the left hand to the right. When the needle is drawn
through, the cotton will be round the threads ; the stitch
is completed by drawing the cotton rather tightly and
taking an ordinary hemming stitch to the left through
the fold of the hem only, just beyond the threads which
have been previously drawn together. The number of
threads taken together for each stitch generally cor-
responds to the number originally drawn out, but this
again varies according to the nature of the material and
the pattern desired.
Drawn-thread work is a combination of hem stitch-
ing and embroidery; it consists mainly of three kinds,
although it is worked conjointly with almost any fancy
stitch. The first class contains all those patterns derived
purely from hem stitching and drawn-out threads. The
second is known as the darning kind, the patterns being
STITCHES.
23
darned in with one or more coloured cottons, while the
third sort introduces endless varieties of lace stitches upon
a hem-stitched foundation. A jour work is very like
drawn-thread work, but it is scarcely known in England ;
in this the threads, instead of being cut and taken out,
are drawn together very closely with fine cotton, and
thus make a raised pattern surrounded by small holes.
When worked on single-thread linen canvas with silk the
effect is very striking.
®
®
Fig. 19 — Knotting or Seeding.
Knotting op Seeding. — In fancy work this raised dot
is generally called a French knot ; it is frequently used
in drawn- thread work, and also sometimes interspersed
with feather stitching. To make the knot, bring the
cotton through to the right side, and hold it a few
inches away from the material in the left hand ; next take
HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
-^
-^
-\
^^
r Ti 1 1
\-J
.
STITCHES. 25
the needle in the right hand and twist it round this small
portion of cotton three or four times : it forms a more
successful knot if the needle is taken over the cotton to
the left and then under to the right. After the three or
four twists have been put on the needle, with the cotton
still held firmly in the left hand, carry the point of the
needle back one or two threads beyond where the cotton
was first drawn through. From this point take the
needle through to the wrong side while holding the little
twists of cotton in their place with the left hand, and pull
the underneath cotton quite tight so as to secure the
knot firmly on the right side. Another simple knot is
made by taking up two threads of the material on the
needle, and bringing the end of the cotton from the right
hand over the point of the needle to the left; then
carrying it under to the right, drawing the needle through
and finally taking it back one thread beyond to the
wrong side.
Honeycombing. — Honeycombing is an ornamental
way of gathering in the fulness of any garment ; when
worked it represents a series of diamonds joined together
by dots, and, as its name suggests, has somewhat the
appearance in shape of a piece of honeycomb. The
foundation consists of a number of small pleats, and for
beginners it is advisable to have some guide for making
them, so as to keep them regular and even. The easiest
way is to rule the wrong side into half-inch squares with
tailor's chalk, and gather each horizontal line with con-
trasting tacking cotton, taking up and passing over half
of each square respectively. These cottons are then
drawn up closely and secured with pins ; the amount of
material allowed for the fulness of the pleats is about
twice the amount of honeycombing required when finished.
26 HOUSEHOLD SEWING,
Two rows of dots, forming half of the diamond, are
worked together; it is begun at the top right-hand corner
by sewing the first two pleats together two or three times
until a sufficiently large dot is made. Then the needle is
slipped down the second pleat to the next row, where
the second and third pleats are joined together in like
manner. The needle is next slipped up to the top row
under the third pleat, and the third and fourth pleats
sewn together. The whole of the honeycombing con-
tinues to be worked in the same way, the second pleat
of one stitch always forming the first of the stitch in the
following row. When the honeycombing is finished the
gathering threads are removed.
Smocking. — Smocking is prepared in exactly the same
way as hoQeyconibing,onlyas the stitches are not so elastic
rather more material must be allowed, about two and a
half to three times the quantity required when finished.
Smocking stitches in themselves are very simple, although
they are often worked into elaborate designs, many of
which are quaintly picturesque, and consequently of late
years they have been greatly in demand for children's
frocks, etc.
The word smock was originally given to a kind of
shirt or shift worn by women and girls ; then combined
as smock-frock, with a short, coarse linen over-all or
blouse worn by labourers, and these are still used by
many working men. Eecently it has been further applied
to loosely made children's frocks. Outline or embroidery,
feather and herringbone stitches are the primary ones
used in smocking, and these are worked across the
material after it has been gathered as though for honey-
combing. Three other stitches, known as rope, cable
and basket, belong almost exclusively to smocking ; rope
stitch is like alternate outline and embroidery, the thread
for the firat stitch being taken to the left of the needle,
for the nest stitch to the right, and so on, changing for
each stitoh. Cable stitoh consists of two rows of rope
stitch laid side by side, but the stitches in the second
row are reversed so as to bring the embroidery and out-
'I I'J !''■' If II
f— "i;«;iS!j!iii:iii;v;ii2-iisaI"l«Ii;4'j' <
' ■ ■ ■ 1 ('
..:»...]. . -iJ^
stitch ; (e) Feather atitch.
line stitches together in the centre, thus formiug the links
of the chain or cable. Basket stitch is simply a number
of rows of rope stitches placed closely together without
reversing the order as in cable.
Out of these few stitches many patterns are evolved,
squares and diamonds in outline being the commonest.
HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
Dresshakinq.
Taoking and Baisting.— These stitches more especi-
ally conoem dress making, although they are often needed
in other kinds of sewing. They are both simply means
of holding material securely and in its proper position, so
as to be easily as well as correctly sewn.
Pins certainly will do this in some cases, but in the
majority tacking, that is, coarse running, will be more
satisfactory. In dressmaking especially, it may he as-
sumed as a general axiom that tacking is never waste
of time, as the sewing afterwards will be more quickly
and evenly accomplished, and with very much better
results. The size of a tacking stitch varies according to
the nature of the place and material to be tacked ; no de-
finite rule can therefore be given, and really the judgment
of the worker is the best guide. Knots for this kind of
sewing are quite allowable, and when not used for joining
seams the cotton need not be fastened off, but a short end
left, so that the tacking may be quickly and evenly
removed. When greater firmness is required an occa-
sional back etii^ch is used, and these require to be care-
fully cut before removal, so as to avoid straining the
work. Soft cotton of a contrasting colour is advisable,
as it is easier to take out and more quickly distinguished
STITCHES. «9
from the ordinary sewing. For thin springy materials,
such as crape, alternate long and short stitches hold
better. Balsting ia a variety of tacking used principally
for skirts, or for places where large spaces are to be
covered (Ftg. 23). The needle is placed across from
PiQ, 23— BaisHng.
right to left with as much material upon it as can con-
veniently be taken ; the next stitch is made the same
way, either towards or away from the worker as the case
necessitates, leaving a long slanted thread between.
Baisting should always be done with the material laid
flat upon a table.
mmm^
FlO. 24 — Oven»sting,
Overcasting — This stitch is seldom used for anything
except dressmaking ; it is a quick method of protecting
30
HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
the raw edges of seams, and as a stitch very closely
resembles seaming. It differs slightly from seaming,
however, in three ways : first, it is worked from left to
right ; secondly, it is very much larger ; and thirdly, the
needle is put in slanting a little towards the left. The
stitches should be taken about one- sixth of an inch deep
and not placed too closely together, eight to an inch
being fully enough. The material is held as for seaming,
and generally speaking, the quicker it is worked the more
regular is the result.
Slip Stitohing. — This method of invisible sewing is
Fig. 25— SUp Stitching.
greatly needed in dressmaking ; it is employed very fre-
quently for sewing materials to linings and trimmings on
to the dress. It has obtained its name, no doubt, from
the fact that the needle in working is slipped between
two pieces of material and joins them together by the
inner folds of the hem. Running is the principal stitch
used; several stitches are taken together, and then the
needle brought out at the edge to draw up and tighten
the cotton. Slipping requires much practice and light
handhng of the material, puckering and insecure stitching
being common faults. Milliner's hemming is also a kind
of slip stitching, but, strictly speaking, it is not a dress-
making Btitcb, although frequently used as such. For
this the hem is turned down once only and sewn with a
sort of herringbone stitch, worked, however, towards the
worker instead of away. A small stitch, with the needle
pointing towards the chest, ia taken through the fold of
the hem, and then a second stitch a little way forward on
the material just below the hem. The repetition of these
will form a succession of V-shaped stitches, and generally
speaking, nothing is to be seen on the right side, the
stitches only being caught to the back of the material.
Baok Hemming — This is a special kind of hemming
for sewing on braids on the bottom of skirts, and is also
sometimes used for the facings on account of its strength.
On the wrong side it gives the appearance of hemming
slanting in the wrong direction, i.e., from left to right
Instead of the needle being brought forward as in hem-
ming to form a Y-shaped stitch, it is carried back about
half-way to the last stitch, and a long, firm stitch taken
forwards through the braid and hem, but of course not
through to the right aide.
Gaaging and Shirring.— These are varieties of
gathering used for different purposes in dressmaking.
33 HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
Gauging is usually employed for drawing up the fulness
at the back of skirts, while shirring, known also as fly
running, is applied chiefly for trimmings, notably frills.
The ordinary gathering stitch is seldom used in dress-
making, a coarse running stitch being more frequently
substituted. Where a, large quantity of thick material
has to be gathered into a small compass, a short stitch
Fw. 27—1'') Sliirrine; (S) Gaugipg,
with a large apace in between iB the method usually
adopted, taking up, for example, a quarter of an inch and
passing over one inch, and this is generally what is
understood by gauging. It draws the material up into
distinct ridges or small pleats, which render it more easily
disposed of into a small space. In sewing it into a band
only the front part of each pleat is fastened, a sort of
double seam stitch being used.
An ordinary single seam stitch is first made joining the
centre of a pleat to the band, and then a second upright
stitch is taken into the same place so as to make the
sewing more secure. The word shirring is very descrip-
tive ; it implies a number of very fine running stitches
made by shivering or shaking a needle through a soft
material. The needle need never be taken out of the
material, as the stitches will be pushed over the eye as it
becomes over full.
Casing and drawing are terms given to several rows
of shirringa with sufficient space between to make little
puffs or datings.
BiaBsin^. — This is a method of securing gauging by
means of a hoe cord or thick eilk. The cord is laid across
Fia. 28— Bia«8itig.
the pleats on the right side and then secured with a kind
of seaming stitch taken into each pleat.
Fan of Stitches.— A fan of stitches is usually em-
ployed to neaten and secure the bones of a dress
bodice. They are worked at the top of the hone and
34
HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
consist of a centre stitch with two or three stitches on
each side. Each stitch must be begun and finished in
Pig. 29— Pan of Stitches.
the centre so as to make a complete fan on both sides of
the bone.
35
CHAPTER II.
PLAIN SEWING.
Cutting Out and HaJdng Household Artioles and
Under Garments. — Household sewing requires very little
skill in cutting out, and the making is a very simple
matter. It includes pillow- and bolster-cases, hemming
sheets, tablecloths, towels, etc.
Circular calico is now much used for pillow- and
bolster-cases, as it saves joining up the sides ; otherwise
it must be joined by seaming the two selvedges together
on the right side, unless they are inclined to be weak,
when it is better to cut them off and make a seam and
felL The only cutting out required in a pillow-case is
to tear off the right amount of calico, generally seven-
eighths to one yard. The average length for a bolster-
case is one and a half yards, and to this extra material
must be allowed for the circular piece used at the end.
This round end is from ten to twelve inches in diameter,
so that as two or three can be cut out of one width of
material it is more economical to cut out several bolster-
cases together. One end of a pillow-case is joined with
a seam and fell, and the other is left open with a hem all
round from one to one and a half inches deep. It is
fastened by three or four buttons and buttonholes, or tied
with the same number of tape strings. The open end of
a bolster-case is also hemmed round ; usually this hem is
36 HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
only about half an inch wide, with a running string of
tape put through to draw the end up closely together.
The round of material for the closed end is hemmed with
a very narrow hem ; the end of the bolster-case is drawn
up with whipping, and then the two seamed together on
the wrong side. Sheets and tablecloths only require a
hem at each end about half an inch wide ; the ends of
serviettes also are hemmed, but the hem is made as
narrow as possible. These hems are all much better if
sewn by hand, as machines draw the cotton rather tight
and do not allow sufficient for shrinkage in washing.
Hems of tablecloths are sometimes seamed instead of
hemmed so as to make them a little stronger. Fringed
bedroom towels require to have the edges overcast to
prevent them fraying; the towel is held towards the
worker between the left thumb and forefinger, and the
fringe placed between the second and third fingers, while
the edge of the towel is overcast from left to right.
Dusters and kitchen towels are hemmed at each end and
a loop of tape by which to hang them up attached to one
corner.
Under Garments.
Cutting out underclothing is an important branch of
sewing, and one well worth cultivating. Economy in
this may be encouraged in three distinct ways.
Firstly, By having well-cut paper patterns the size
of the garment required; these will prevent cutting at
random and probably wasting some material. Paper
patterns are better cut without turnings, as the edges
can be so much more easily marked for sewing, and also
the amount for turnings can be better adapted to suit the
material.
PLAIN SEWING. 37
Secondly, By using wide material which will almost
invariably cut to better advantage, and the difference in
the cost is very trifling.
Thirdly. By placing the patterns on the material
without wasting space, and if several garments are cut
out at the same time much more material may be saved,
as one part will fit into another. This involves careful
thought and planning for beginners, but will amply repay
study.
A few general principles apply to the making of all
garments. In the first place, selvedges always run length-
wise, that is, from head to foot, as this is the strongest
way of the material, bands being the only exception,
because in these the strength is required in the opposite
direction. Next, patterns ought always to be pinned to
the material, beginning at the centre and working towards
the edge, and not at the edge first, as this is apt to pucker
them in the centre. Again, jagged and unevenly cut
edges should be studiously avoided, as both time and
material are wasted in straightening them ; even cutting
may be encouraged by cutting out on a flat table and
opening the scissors as wide as possible each time so as
to get a good sweep of material at one cut. The edges
of all patterns, except when making woollen garments,
can be marked round with a dressmaker's wheel, a single
one being preferable, as the turnings may then be regu-
lated to suit the requirements of the material and gar-
ment. If a wheel is not procurable, the edges should
be marked with pin pricks or pencil, and woollen fab-
rics may be lined with tailor's chalk. For inexperienced
workers turnings are better marked with chalk or pencil,
but more advanced cutters will be able to regulate them
by the eye while cutting. Clear observation, quickness,
38 HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
and dexterity are all necessary in cutting out in order
to gauge accurately the peculiarities and proportions of
individual figures, as well as to adapt them to the
material and pattern. Scissors should be held by the
thumb and third finger of the right hand, with the under
bar supported and guided by the second and third fingers.
Large cutting-out scissors sometimes have the lower
handle large enough to hold the three last fingers, but the
first finger ought always to be reserved for the bar above the
handle. Unless cutting two or more pieces together of
thick material the blade with the rounded end should be
kept on the table while cutting because it will run more
easily along ; but, with heavy cloths there is always the
danger of making the under piece smaller by raising it
so much over the scissors. Thus large cutting-out
scissors are frequently made with the lower blade
pointed.
The principal under garments are chemises, drawers,
combinations, nightdresses, shirts, skirts and bodices.
Chemises. — Chemises are cut with or without side
gores and with or without sleeves according to the width
of the material and the pattern employed. The half-
width of a woman's chemise equals seven-eighths of its
length, and for children they are equal. They are better
if cut without a seam on the shoulder, which necessitates
sufficient calico being cut off for both back and front and
doubled across so as to let the fold fall on the shoulder.
The amount of material for one woman's chemise varies
from two to two and a half yards. If the material is wide
enough, the neck band may be obtained from the pieces
sloped out from the sides ; otherwise, it wastes less material
if the bands are made the wrong way of the material and
a piece torn from the width before the chemise is cut out.
PLAIN SEWING. 39
If the sleeves are put in separately, material for these
must be allowed, and the facings for the front opening
can generally be procured from the piece hollowed out
at the neck curve. In making, if cut with gores^ these
are first sewn on with ordinary or old German seaming ;
next the sides are joined with a run, stitch, back stitch,
or seam and fell, taking care to let the fells fall on to the
back portion when it is ready for the bottom hem. If
made with gores the bottom may require rounding off
towards the sides so as to make it appear even ; the depth
of the hem is usually from half to one inch. Sleeves cut
with a straight outside edge are hemmed like the bottom ;
separate sleeves are joined with a fell at the sides and
felled into the chemise, and those cut with a curved or
slanted outside edge are faced with material the same
shape or cut on the cross. The facings are generally
run on the right side to the edge of the sleeve, turned
back and hemmed on the wrong side ; sometimes, how-
ever, this is reversed, the facing being nm on the wrong
side, turned back and stitched on the right. The front
opening — about six inches — is finished off in various ways ;
commonly, the right side is turned in about one inch and
hemmed, and the left side about half an inch and also
hemmed ; then at the bottom the wide hem is stitched across
the narrow. An alternative and stronger method is to
put false hems on each side of the opening, the one on the
left side being narrower than that on the right so as not
to be seen. These pieces or false hems look much neater
if they are sewn on to the wrong side, then turned back
on to the right and stitched round. They should be cut
wide enough to overlap one another, the first joining being
flattened and made to come exactly under the centre of
the false hem when finished. The piece on the left side
40 HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
is cut the length of the opening ; that on the right requires
to be at least one inch longer with the bottom squared,
rounded or pointed, and stitched to the chemise to about
half an inch above the opening. The under half is made
neat on the wrong side by buttonholing, hemming or seam-
ing it on to the upper piece, and if desired, the whole may
be stitched across just above the opening on the right side.
The fulness round the neck is gathered or tucked to the
required size, and the front left about a couple of inches
wider than the back. The length of chemise bands varies
according to size of the wearer, and whether the neck is
to be made high or low ; a medium figure requires a band
thirty-six inches long and three-quarters inch wide when
finished. When trimmed with embroidery the top of the
band is opened and the embroidery inserted before it is
put on the chemise ; extra turnings to the width of the band
will therefore be required. Lace, frilling, edgings, etc., are
seamed on to the wrong side of the band. Care must be
taken not to carry the gathers or tucks into the shoulder
and sleeve part of the neck, as the fulness is all wanted
directly in the front and back. The bands are hemmed
on in the usual way, then ornamented with feather or
fancy stitches, and fastened in front with a button and
buttonhole or loop. A second fastening is sometimes put
at the centre of the front opening.
Drawers. — Women's, girls' and children's drawers all
differ in proportion, but these proportions are generally
based on the one length measurement which is taken
from the back hip at the waist down to the knee or below
it, as worn. The widths for the three grades should be —
(1) women, 1\ to 1^ the length ; (2) girls, 1-J the length ;
(3) children, 1^ the length. For tucked drawers one-eighth
of the length should be added lengthwise to allow for the
PLAIN SEWING. 41
heras and tucks. Koughly calculated, the entire length
is divided equally in women's between the body and the
leg ; for girls, the body takes up about two- thirds of the
length, and for children about three-quarters of the length,
thus the younger the child the shorter is the leg required.
The front waist for women's drawers is hollowed out
about one-eighth of the entire length and sloped up to the
hip. Frequently, for very stout figures this slope is
carried up to the back on the material, thus adding a
few inches extra to the length of the back body. If made
with circular bands, the depth of this must be deducted
from the length after the width has been calculated.
Children's drawers slope down at the hip, for small sizes
about one-eighth, and for larger one-sixth of the entire
length, and the front waist in all sizes is hollowed out
about one-eighth of the length. For all drawers, the
amount hollowed out to make the leg is three-eighths of
the width for knickers and about one-eighth of the width
more for the tucked drawers. About one-eighth of the
width is sloped off the front body up to the waist, and
one-sixteenth of the width at the back; this average
applies equally to all sizes. In the making of these
garments the leg seams are first sewn, with a run, seam,
or stitch and fell ; sometimes a mantua- maker's hem is
used, but it is not nearly strong enough to stand the
strain brought to bear on such seams. For knickers, the
bottoms are gathered and placed into a band; when
hemmed and tucked they must be shortened to the
required length, the depth of the hems and tucks being
purely a matter of taste.
Children's and girls' drawers have the two legs joined
entirely together with a fell, and openings made at the
hips about one-third or one-half of the length. These
42 HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
openings are better when strengthened with false hems
put on the same way as at the front opening of a chemise ;
they are, however, sometimes merely hemmed on either
side and strengthened at the bottom with a small gusset
or piece of tape. For women, the opening of each leg is
hemmed round with a hem of about half an inch in depth,
or else faced with a false hem cut on the cross ; then these
legs are seamed together in front on the wrong side for
about five inches below the waist. The waists of all
are gathered into bands ; women usually prefer circular
shaped ones, but straight are always used for children.
The band for the latter is divided into two parts, the front
being about one inch shorter than the back. Most of the
fulness for women is placed at the back and just sufficient
in front to give ease and prevent dragging. They are
fastened with tapes, or button and buttonholes, the latter
being the most suitable for children. One and a half
yards of calico will make an average sized pair of
women's drawers.
Combinations. — Combinations, as the name suggests,
are drawers and chemises combined in one garment. An
average sized combination requires two and a half yards
of calico, so that they are more economical than two
separate garments, and although more difiicult to cut out
and make there is less sewing in them, consequently they
can be more quickly done. The length measurement is
usually the only one required, and this is taken from the
shoulder to well below the knee in front. The average
width is seven-eighths of the length, but stout figures
will require them to be equal. Various patterns and
shapes are used, which must be made up according to
their own special requirements. The upper part is
usually treated like a chemise, and the lower as a pair of
PLAIN SEWING, 43
drawers. There is one precaution very necessary, and
that is to insert a small shaped hand across the hack
where the body joins the top of the legs. This, gener-
ally speaking, is the weak spot in all patterns, and
needs strengthening, as the strain here in wear is
very great. The front is generally finished off with
false hems cut to fit the garment, but this is again
subject to variations according to the nature of the
pattern.
Nightdresses. — The making of nightdresses is some-
what dissimilar to other women's garments, the usual
rule of sewing the side seams first being set aside, and the
order of shirtmaking more closely followed. The most
common shapes are either with a tucked or gathered front
and a yoke at the back, or with a yoke back and front.
The half- width of the skirt at the bottom is about three-
quarters to seven-eighths of its entire length, but all other
calculations should be regulated by the style of the
garment and the proportions of the figure. In making,
the front opening is the first part to be done, and this is
usually finished hke a chemise ; the tucks are next made
and the whole front as nearly finished as possible before
attempting to put the nightdress together in any way.
The front neck is curved after the tucks are made and
overcast round to prevent it stretching. Next, the yoke
is put on the back, with a sufficient material (about two
inches) left free on either side to allow for curving out
at the armhole, and then the shoulders joined together.
The making of the remainder of a nightdress is com-
paratively easy ; it includes sewing the side seams and
the hem roimd the bottom, which are done like those
of chemises, and making and putting in the sleeves and
neckband. The sleeves and neckband are usually trimmed
44 HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
to match the front; instead of the latter a turned-down
collar is frequently substituted.
Shirts. — Shirts are made in the same manner as
nightdresses, viz., first the fronts, followed by the yoke
and shoulders, then the side seams, collar and sleeves.
The only exception is, that the bottom hems are some-
times done before putting the shirt together, which in a
nightdress would be impossible, because the side seams
are joined all the way down ; in a shirt the side seam
is left open at the bottom for six or eight inches,
the corners rounded off to the bottom, and the hem
carried round from one side to the other. The side
seams are finished off by gussets and also the openings
of the sleeve seams, unless they have been made with
false hems. The size of the intended wearer's neck,
chest, back and arm are the primary measurements
required for shirts ; the length of the front skirt is from
two to three inches shorter than the back, and the width
about the same amount narrower. The greatest attention
should be paid to the fit of the collar, which, in order to
sit well, requires the neck curve to be a sort of squared
semicircle ; in other words, the neck should be cut
straight down from the shoulder, about half the distance
of the amount to be taken out, and then curved round
rather deeply to the front. It is a very common fault to
curve directly from the shoulder to the front, and this
must be specially guarded against, as it causes the front
to wrinkle and sit badly at the neck. Shirts follow the
rule of men's clothing and fasten over from left to right,
and the opening of the sleeve at the wrist ought to be
half the length of the cuff so as to allow the cuff to lie
quite flat when being ironed. Sleeves are better if cut
with the upper part on the straight and the under only
PLAIN SEWING, 45
on the bias, as the straight edge acts as a support and pre-
vents the other part from stretching out of shape. One
width of calico the length of the arm will cut two
sleeves ; fold it into eight lengthwise and then cut
across from three-eighths at the top down to five-eighths
at the bottom. This will form two sleeves each three-
eighths wide at the bottom and five-eighths at the top.
Finally, fold the straight and slanting edges together
and pare them even at the top and bottom. Three
buttonholes are required on the neckband, one in the
centre and one at each end ; two are put each side of the
front, those on the upper and left side being made longi-
tudinally, that is, running the same way as the selvedge,
and those on the under and right-hand side across in the
opposite direction. The centres of the buttonholes on the
right and- left of the fronts must exactly meet, and the
reason they are made in contrary directions is to prevent
the shirt studs falling out.
Cuffs have two or four buttonholes as desired, and
dress shirt fronts generally only fasten in one place.
Skirts. — Skirts are of endless variety and material, and
may be gored or straight as desired. Flannel skirts are not
generally gored, but are made of two and a half or three
widths of material joined together. White skirts require
three widths of thirty-inch calico, one width for the back,
one cut into two gores for the sides, and one shaped for
the front. The width of upper skirts round the bottom
when finished is from two and a quarter to two and a
half yards. All skirts fit more comfortably if placed in
circular bands ; for cotton washing skirts the fulness is
gathered into the bands so as to be ironed more easily,
but for thick woollen materials pleats are better, as they
lie flatter. Skirt placket holes are made with a broad
46 HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
hem about one and a half inches wide on the right-hand
side, a narrow one about half an inch wide on the opposite
side, and the broad one is stitched firmly across the
bottom one at the bottom of the opening, thus making a
pleat and preventing the placket tearing down. They are
fastened with either buttons and buttonholes or tapes.
Bodices. — No definite rules can be given for the
cutting out of bodices, as they are usually planned from
a dress pattern. Camisoles are loose, partially fitting
bodices, with their seams joined with French hems like
blouses ; tightly fitting bodice seams are usually joined
with a run or stitch and fell. The front hems average
one inch in width ; in cutting out it is advisable to mark
the fitting lines, that is, where the bodice exactly meets
in front when fitting, with a dressmaker's wheel or pencil,
because when the bodice is finished these must be exactly
in the centre of each hem. Therefore, in calculating
the amount of material for a one-inch hem, one and
three-quarter inches beyond the fitting line must be
allowed ; then when the quarter of an inch is turned in
for the first turning of the hem and one inch for the hem
itself, the fitting line ought to be half an inch from the
edge. The necks are usually finished off with narrow
false hems cut on the cross ; the bottom of the basque
is hemmed as narrow as possible, and if made without
sleeves, the armhole is faced like the neck. If sleeves
are put in, they are cut out and made Hke those of
chemises ; camisoles further require drawing tapes round
the neck and waist, the former being nm through the
neck facing and the latter requiring a narrow band of
material or tape put on the wrong side at the waist to
form a casing. Five to seven buttons and buttonholes
are usually considered sufficient for plain bodices.
47
CHAPTER III.
SEAMS, BANDS, GUSSETS, TUCKS AND BINDINGS.
Seams include all the various methods of joining two
pieces of material together, and it is a curious fact that
some of them are known as hems, perhaps because they
are made by a double fold of material. The principal
seams are : —
(1) Seaming. (7) German Hemming.
(2) Sew and Fell. (8) Counter Hemming.
(3) Bun and Fell. (9) Mantua-maker's Hem.
(4) Stitch and Fell. (10) Dress Seams.
(5) German Boiled Hem. (11) Flannel Seams.
(6) French Hem.
A fell is another name for a double fold, which is
hemmed back on to the material to hide the raw edges of
the join. Fells occurring each side of a piece of sewing
should correspond, and fall or turn on to the back half
of the article. The width of the fell should be as narrow
as is compatible with strength, one-eighth to one-quarter
of an inch being the average, and they ought to be care-
fully and evenly turned down.
Seaming. — This is the ordinary seaming or sewing
stitch applied to join two selvedges. Selvedges are joined
thus in pillow-cases and in gores for under garments, but
they ought only to be done in this manner when they
48
HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
are strong and firm. The seaming is worked on the
right side, and afterwards flattened with good pressing.
Sew and Pell. — Being one of the strongest seams, it
is frequently used for the bias joins which occur at the
side of the garment. One side of the material is turned
down twice and the other side only once; the double
fold is put on the front half of a garment, the first
turning being one-eighth to one-sixth of an inch on the
Fig. 30— Sew and Fell.
right side and the second one-sixth to one-quarter of an
inch back on to the wrong. The single fold is on the
back portion, and is turned on to the wrong side one-
eighth to one-sixth of an inch deep. Then the folded edges
are placed together on the right side, seamed and well
flattened. The double fold forms the fell, and is turned
back on the wrong side and hemmed.
Run and Pell. — Where quickness rather than very
great strength is required a run and fell will prove very
SEAMS, BANDS, GUSSETS, TUCKS AND BINDINGS. 49
satisfftotory, and for very fine muslin fabrics should
always be substituted for a seam and fell. The pre-
paration requires one edge only to be turned in onoe on
to the wrong side, which, in side joins, must be on the
Fig. 31— Run and Fell.
front half ; the raw edge of the other half is placed to
this fold, and after being well tacked they are run
together just inside the raw edge of the piece turned
down. It is afterwards finished off with hemming like
a seam and fell.
Stitoh and Fell. — The method of preparing this seam
is identical with the last, the only difference between the
Fig. 32— Stitch and Fell.
two kinds being that stitching or back stitching is sub-
stituted for running. Care must be taken, however, to
4
50 HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
work on the top part of the fell, so that the right side of
the stitching may appear uppermost.
German Rolled Seam. — This is a very clumsy join,
and seldom, if ever, used in England. The two raw
edges are tacked together on the wrong side with the
back half about one-sixth of an inch inside of the front
piece. It is next stitched on the front side about half
an inch from the edge, or, if quickness rather than great
strength be desired, it may be back-stitched or run.
The fell, instead of being laid flat and even, is rolled
between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand and
then hemmed.
French Hem. — The chief feature of this seam is that
the raw edges are completely hidden without showing
any stitches on the right side, as is the case in ordinary
fells. On this account it is used for children's pinafores,
unlined blouses, camisole bodices, and similar loose
garments ; also, on account of its strength, it is univer-
sally used for sewing the edges of pockets. The two
§fm///^//////'y//////////^//^^^
\
Fig. 33— French Hem.
edges are placed together on the right side and run,
stitched or back stitched, about one-eighth or one quarter
of an inch from the outside ; then they are turned on to
the wrong side, the sewing well pressed out, and once
more sewn with the same stitch previously employed,
sufficiently far down from the folded edge to cover the
inside raw material. Its great drawback is that it leaves
SEAMS, BANDS, GUSSETS, TUCKS AND BINDINGS, 51
a seam like a tuck on the wrong side instead of lying
flat, and on this account it is seldom found on closely
fitting garments.
German Hemming. — The English work this seam
in a slightly different way to the Germans. The latter
prepare their work exactly as they would for a run and
fell, and then substitute hemming for the running. It is
very difficult to keep the hemming quite straight unless
the seam is well tacked and a creased line put where the
Fig. 34 — German Hemming.
sewing is required. The English plan is to turn down
both edges about one-sixth of an inch, the upper half on
to the right side and the lower half on to the wrong.
Next they place the lower fold just to the raw edge of the
upper part and hem it down, working the stitch as it were
upside down. Finally, the upper fold is turned down and
hemmed on to the lower half like an ordinary fell.
Counter Hemming. — As this is a very flat seam it is
often placed at the shoulders of various garments, such
as chemises, children's pinafores, and infants* shirts ; its
drawback is that one of its hemmed edges appears on the
right side. Both edges of the join are turned in about
one-sixth of an inch, one on to the right side and the other
on to the wrong, and then the two folds placed one on the
52 HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
other so that the raw edges just meet and do not overlap.
One fold is hemmed down on to the right side and the
other on to the wrong. Counter seams are sometimes
M i « i » . «^ i * » V^l«^»'^^»*#«*«**» ' ^» « »'j^^» *i '»* i «»M»« ^t M ^ ^ »' ^»V»*^ « >Mi i* < « »«*«> ' » ' » « i »V^
f^///////f////^^///^//////^///////f^^^^///^^^//^//y^/^^f/^/^^^^^^A
Fig. 35 — Counter Hemmiiig.
stitched instead of being hemmed, which is rather more
difficult to do as both rows must be worked on the right side.
Hantua-makep's Hem. — In appearance this is very
like a French hem, but it is not nearly so strong. It is a
very quick and useful seam for thin unlined musUns and
silks ; the two raw edges are placed one sUghtly below
the other on the wrong side, the upper one turned down
once on to the imder edge, and then both turned down
once again together. This fold is next hemmed down
through the double thickness of material, and because
this is the only row of sewing it is only suitable for seams
where very little strain occurs.
Dress Seams. — Bodice and skirt seams require to
be as flat as possible : the two pieces are machined
together or else back-stitched by hand, the raw edges
pared to the required depth (varying according to the
part of the dress), pressed open and overcast, or bound
with sarcenet ribbon. For washing dresses the raw edges
of the material and lining are sometimes turned in to
meet one another, and run or overcast neatly together.
SEAMS, BANDS, GUSSETS, TUCKS AND BINDINGS. 53
FlanDel SeamB. — Three distinct variations may be
noticed in joiaing flannel, but the same stitches are
employed for all, the differences only occurring in the
manner of herringboning the fell. The two pieces are
placed evenly with the two right sides together and
Btitched, back -stitched, or run a quarter to a half-inch
from the edge. Owing to the nature of flannel a very
close stitch is not wanted, and unless very great strength
is required, running with an occasional back stitch is the
best method ; sometimes, however, this part is machined,
;
Fia. 36— FlanDel Seams.
in which case the tension must be very loose and the
stitch fairly large so as not to pucker. The edges are
herringboned in three ways. Firstly, by turning both
edges down together on to the flannel and protecting
them with one row of herringboning. Secondly, by open-
ing the seam, laying one edge of the flannel on either side
and herringboning down the centre of the seam. Thirdly,
by opening the seam as above and herringboning the raw
edges on each side on to the flannel. The first is the usual
method for ordinary garments, as it is the strongest ; the
second is also strong, but, although much flatter, is not so
54
HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
neat, as it leaves the raw edges unprotected ; and the third
is very flat and neat, but not so strong, and thus is
generally only used for babyclothing.
Bands. — Bands are folds of material into which
gathers and pleats are set, and they are further required as
supports for certain parts of garments. As strength is
of primary importance they should be cut with the sel-
vedge running lengthwise, the average length being about
half as much as the material to be gathered, and for pleats
rather less than half as they take more material, two and
Fig. 37— Baud with Gathers Tacked in and partly Hemmed.
a quarter to two and a half times the length of the band
being frequently allowed. If possible remove the actual
selvedge from the band, because it is much stronger than
the surrounding material, consequently is apt to cause
puckering when the gathers are set in. The width of a
band varies considerably according to its position, and can
only be determined by its own special requirements. The
making is a very simple matter, and is as follows : Strike
the centre of the band lengthwise on to the right side so
as to fold it equally in two, and then strike each edge one-
sixth of an inch deep on to the wrong side. Turn in also
SEAMS, BANDS, GUSSETS, TUCKS AND BINDINGS. 55
the ends of the band about one-sixth of an inch, and in
order to keep the band smooth and even it is well to
tack it together lengthwise a little distance from the fold.
The ends of the band are seamed together, but it is wise
to leave this until the band is sewn on to the gathers or
pleats, and only tack part way down at the beginning, as
the fixing will be easier.
Before the band is put on the gathers are stroked to
make them lie flat and even. This is done by drawing
cotton up moderately tight and securing the end round
a pin, which, for convenience, should have the point up-
wards, and then laying the gathers evenly on the right
side in little folds by the help of a pin. Always begin
doing this at the left-hand side, and with the pin in the
right hand push gently under each gather, holding the
gathers between the left thumb and forefinger and draw
the pin down so as to crease or fold them into small
pleats. Great care must be taken not to scratch the
gathers instead of quietly stroking them or the fabric
will be weakened ; if properly done no sound will be
audible. Bach gather must be raised by the pin, laid
under the thumb and stroked down for about one inch.
After the material underneath the gathering-thread is
finished, turn the article round and treat the part above
in the same manner.
In fixing on the band, first loosen the gathers and
pin the quarters under the front half only of the band, so
as just to cover the gathering- thread. The pins ought to
be put in pointing upwards to the folded edge of the band
or it will interfere with the gathers. For beginners it is
wise to tack them together, but the stitches must be taken
the same way as the pins were placed, forming a sort of
baisting stitch. The band is sewn on with a kind of
HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
•fi ll I I I I II I +F-— :— 4g::::gjg:::i'
/« • «
m
'i
Fig. 3S — A, Square tor two Ousseta ; B, Gusset turned down one-sixth
of an inch ; C, Fold diTidingOuaeet from Ijning ; D, Liniiig cut at
one aide to form HBiagon ; E, Onra«t when flniabad.
SEAMS, BANDS, GUSSETS, TUCKS AND BINDINGS. 57
hemming, one stitch heing taken in each fold, and after
the right side is finished the wrong side is hemmed down ;
this must cover the front hemming, but on no account be
carried below, as no stitches must be seen on the right
side.
Gussets. — A gusset is a wedged-shaped piece of
material inserted at openings to prevent seams tearing
or splitting open. Much depends upon the nicety of the
putting in and finishing off, but when well accomphshed
they have a peculiar charm to a good needlewoman.
Usually they are cut in pairs, because the commonest
places requiring them are the sleeves and side seams of
shirts, so two exactly similar will be needed for the right
and left sides. A square of two or three inches is suffi-
ciently large for such gussets, which is divided diagonally
to make two triangular pieces. Each of these triangular
pieces forms one gusset ; it is turned down all round about
one-sixth of an inch on to the wrong side, then the apex
or point where the two straight sides meet is turned
down to meet the turning on the bias side, known as the
base. The triangular piece thus turned down forms the
gusset on the right side, and the remainder acts as a sort
of hning. This lining may be hemmed back exactly as it
stands, or the comers adjoining the base turned back to
the corner of the fold dividing it from the gusset proper
so as to make a hexagonal or six-sided shape. In sewing
a gusset into a garment, place the point at the apex into
the corner of the opening at the end of the seam, and seam
down on the right side each side of the small triangle,
which has been previously divided by a crease from the
lining. Without breaking off the cotton, turn to the
wrong side and hem the lining neatly all round. The two
lower sides of the hexagon, next to the fold of the gusset.
58 HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
should be hemmed at right angles to the seam, and the
two short sides, joining these, parallel to the seam ; the
last or bias edge falls naturally on the cross, but care
must be taken to see that it covers the end of the garment
seam so as to neaten and to protect it. The fell of a
seam where a gusset is placed should be cut across so as
to allow the hems of the opening to lie quite flat. The
fold dividing the gusset from the lining is sometimes
stitched across about one-eighth of an inch from the edge
to strengthen it and to give finish. Square gussets are
sometimes inserted in the shoulders of boys' shirts and
nightshirts to give more room at the neck. The square
(four to six inches) is turned down all round with a nar-
row turning, the shoulders opened from the neck almost
the length of one side of the square and turned down on
to the right side; then two sides of the square are seamed
into this opening, with the turnings all on the right side,
thus making a triangular gusset. The turned-down edges
are next pressed down on to the gusset ; the other half of
the square is turned over and stitched on to the right side
so as to completely cover the first sewing. The diagonal
fold of the square is gathered with the remainder of the
neck into the neckband. Another kind of square gusset
is sometimes inserted in the sleeves of nightdresses and
chemises to give greater freedom in moving the arm.
Two sides of the square are sewn into the side seams,
which, of course, must be opened down the length of the
sides of the square, and the other two sides are put in
like manner into the seam of the sleeve, giving the effect
of a diamond-shaped piece of material inserted under the
arm.
Tucks. — Tucks may be described as pleats sewn in
a garment, either for ornamental purposes or in order
SEAMS. BANDS, GUSSETS, TUCKS AND BINDINGS. S9
to shorten or narrow it. The widths vary very much
according to taste, as well as to the special needs of the
material. They are greatly used to ornament such
garments as nightdresses, chemises and babies' robes.
For this purpose they are seldom more than a quarter of
an inch wide, and in fine muslin materials only about
one-eighth of au inch, but for woollen fabrics they are
'
'~^
-
-
'
-
-
—
—
—
—
—
_
Fia. 39— Tucks.
made much wider, one to one and a half being the average
width. Garments which have become too short may be
lengthened by joining on more material and hiding the
join with a tuck, taking care, of course, to bring the seam
in the under fold. When placed lengthwise on gar-
ments the folded edge of each tuck should turn to the
centre on each side respectively. The material required
for one tuck is twice its depth with once that amount to
6o HOUSEHOLD SEWING,
lie upon ; the space between each tuck may be its whole
or half its depth, and sometimes it only just clears the
preceding line of sewing. Half the depth of the tuck
between each is the general rule except for very narrow
ones, when it is about the same as the depth of the tuck.
Each tuck in making requires two strikings on to the
right side, one for the folded edge and one to guide the
sewing, which also marks the depth. Therefore, for
quarter-inch tucks with one-eighth of an inch between
each, the first striking would be placed five-eighths of an
inch from the preceding row of stitching, which would
allow one-fourth of an inch for the under part of the tuck,
one-fourth of an inch for the tuck to lie on, and one-
eighth of an inch space ; the second striking would be put a
quarter of an inch above the first. The material is folded by
the first striking, and sewn through the doubled material
on the second ; thus when the tuck is finished the sewing
will have been done on the upper side, which will add
to its appearance. Tucks are sewn most usually with
running, but they may also be stitched, back-stitched, or
hemmed. Hemming requires to be done on the wrong
side, therefore it is easier in this case to put the second
striking below the first and to raise it on to the wrong
side.
Binding. — Binding is the neatening of a raw edge by
covering it with folded tape, ribbon, braid, etc., partly to
strengthen and protect it, but also to keep thick materials
smooth and flat. Flannel binding is a very thin kind of
tape with a silky finish. Galoon and Persian or Paris
binding are very similar, and they can all be bought in
various widths, half-inch being the commonest. One-
third of the depth of the binding is usually put on the
right side, and the remaining two-thirds on the wrong.
SEAMS, BANDS, GUSSETS, TUCKS AND BINDINGS. 5i
with the raw edges of the material slipped in between.
In woollen fabrics the binding should he very firmly held
and the material eased in slightly so as to Iteep the edges
from puckering; also care must be taken not to roll the
edge of the material between the binding. The common
— , -.J-
method is to hem the binding on the right side and hem
or run it on the wrong. It is, however, sometimes
stitohed on the right side and hemmed back on the
wrong. On no account must the stitches on the right
side be taken through the binding on the wrong.
62
CHAPTER IV.
FASTENINGS.
Buttons and Buttonholes. — Various methods are
used for fastening garments, etc., but the most popular is
with buttons and buttonholes. These, besides being flat
and close, are very firm, and so are especially suitable for
dress bodices ; they consist of slits in the material which
are worked round the edge with a special kind of stitch.
They require much practice and careful attention in every
detail, also skill in handling the work and a well-trained
eye to accomplish them successfully. The stitch should
(V b n
sr-
FiG. 41— Buttonholes.
be learnt on canvas or coarse linen without an actual slit
prior to being worked on other material. Buttonholes
are invariably worked on two or more thicknesses of
material so as to be strong, and the ends may be squared
or rounded. The most usual way is to round the outside
end and square the inner, as the rounded end gives more
room for the stem of the buttons and the squared one
helps to keep the buttonhole closed ; but when worked
on biassed material it is perhaps better to square both
FASTENINGS. 63
ends, as such buttonholes are apt to stretch. It is very
important to cut the slit quite straight and even, as it is
almost impossible to make jagged and crooked edges into
a good buttonhole.
For coarse fabrics which are likely to fray, and also
for woollen goods, the slit is protected by a few pre-
liminary stitches before the buttonhole stitch is com-
menced. The most common way of doing this is to take
three or four overcasting stitches on either side of the sUt
in fine silk or cotton ; another favourite plan is to stitch
or run each side of the buttonhole before cutting the slit,
and a third way much used for biassed buttonholes is to
strand each side with twist or thick cotton by carrying
two or three threads down each side and fastening them
across at either end sufficiently tight to prevent the stitch
stretching. Tailors generally have a punching machine
for cutting buttonholes, which excavates a small portion
of the material at the rounded edge, and they finish it off
with an eyelet hole so as to hold the shank of the button.
The working of buttonholes on all kinds of materials
varies but little ; when worked on thick woollen stuffs a
somewhat deeper stitch is necessary to get a firm hold, and
the cotton or silk with which they are worked should be
fairly thick buttonhole twist, i.e., a thick, twisted purse,
silk. When worked on calico of medium thickness
the stitch is taken four threads deep and worked from
left to right, beginning at the squared or inner end. The
slit is held along the first finger of the left hand, and on
no account must the finger be pushed through the hole,
or a rounded and very much stretched buttonhole will be
the result. When finished the edges of the slit should
lie quite evenly together, also both the inner and outer
edges of the button stitch ought to be regular and even ;
64 HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
they axe always worked on the right side, and a comtDon
fault is to allow the under layer or layers of materiaJ to
slip away froto the upper, and consequently they are not
caught in with the sewing. The method of working the
actuEbl huttonhole stitch is to place the needle through the
slit and take up the amount of material required for its
depth ; then, before drawing the needle through, to taJce
the thread from the eye of the needle, carry it over to
the left and under the needle to the right. As the needle
Fla. ^—Buttonhole Stitch.
is drawn through this will form a loop, which must be
brought to the raw edge of the slit. Some workers
prefer to bring the needle through without twisting the
thread round, and, before it is drawn quite closely to,
patting the needle under and through the loop thus made ;
the effect when completed is exactly the same, but the
former is the quicker way.
Buttonhole stitch differs from buttonholing in having
a thicker edge, which is generally known as a double
purl. Five, seven or nine etitches are used for the
FASTENTNGS, 65
rounded end, an uneven number being chosen so as to
bring the centre one exactly even with the slit and with
an equal number on either side. If worked with nine
stitches it is better merely to use overcasting stitches
instead of buttonhole, as there is hardly sufficient space
for the purled edge, unless, indeed, the corner has been
well punched or the material is soft and capable of being
drawn up closely. A bar is worked across the squared
end, which, when the buttonhole has been worked four
threads deep, will require nine stitches, so as to bring the
centre one opposite the slit. Many people prefer these
stitches taken four threads deep through the material at
right angles to the sides of the buttonhole ; with washing
fabrics this is perhaps necessary, but a loop bar answers
the purpose very well, and has a much neater appearance.
To make this bar, strand the end of the buttonhole
three or four times about two threads beyond the
beginning of the slit, and then buttonhole these strands
across so as to bring the purled edge to touch the side
stitches ; it is, however, advisable to take the first and last
stitches through the material to prevent the loop turning
back in the opposite direction during wear. Tailors work
their buttonholes from right to left, and bring the thread
from the right hand under the needle to the left, but the
result when finished is identical ; sometimes also they cut
a triangular wedge-shaped piece from the corner instead
of punching, and then work the buttonhole into a sort of
oval shape by placing a fine gimp or cord at the edge of
the slit, which is covered by the buttonhole stitch.
Buttons. — In speaking of buttons three distinct
classes may be noted. (1) With shanks, as shoe buttons ;
(2) without shanks but with pierced holes, such as
shirt and trouser buttons ; (3) without either shanks
5
66 HOUSEHOLD SEWIN<i.
or piercings, as ordinary linen buttons. Tailor's buttons
are sometimes reckoned as another class ; they have a
small rounded pad of material at the back of the button
for the sewing, but these in reality are only substitutes
for metal shanks, so they may easily be included in the
first class. A variety of substances are used in the
manufacture of buttons, such as metals, bone, glass, jet,
mother-of-pearl, and for covered ones cloth, silk and
linen.
Buttons are sewn on the right side to a double fold of
material to prevent them tearing or pulling away from the
fabric ; if this does not naturally occur where buttons are
n
Fig, 43— a, Ring;
, Star; C, Loop
needed, tape or some substitute is generally placed under-
neath as a support. Buttons with shanks are very easily
sewn on by simply drawing the thread alternately through
the shank and material. Buttons without shanks require
to be what is called " stemmed ". This is done by leaving
the thread a little loose while sewing on the button, and
then twisting it round the sewing several times between
the button and the material before fastening off the
cotton. The object of this is to make an artificial stem
which will raise the button sUghtly above the material so
as to allow sufficient space for the buttonhole to lie under
without straining the sewing. Buttons pierced with two.
FASTENINGS. 67
three or four holes are sewn by carrying the thread from
one hole to the other in lines, triangles, squares or crosses
respectively. Linen buttons are sewn on with various
devices ; the three most usual ways are a ring of stitching,
a star of stitches, and one or two loops of buttonhoUng.
The sewing is placed in the centre of the button, and
should not cover more than one-third of its diameter ; the
cotton is fastened at the beginning of the right side of the
material just under the button by a few back stitches, and
these buttons specially require good stemming, or they
will quickly pull off. To fasten off the thread pass the
needle through to the wrong side, take one or two back
stitcheS) slip it between the fold, and cut off the
cotton closely.
Hooks and Eyes. — Hooks and eyes are made of
twisted wire, both black and white, the former being
japanned and the latter silvered. As a means of fastening
they are not so firm as buttons and buttonholes, but where
invisible closings are necessary they are invaluable, be-
Fio. 44— Hook and Eye.
cause being small and flat and sewn on the wrong side,
they are hardly discernible on the right side. Large
sized hooks and eyes are used for skirt waistbands, and
are known as mantle hooks and eyes, being primarily
used for thick cloth jackets and mantles. If possible,
68 HOUSEHOLD SEWING,
hooks and eyes ought not to be put on washing fabrics,
as the action of the water is apt to rust the metal and
cause iron-mould stains. In sewing them on strength is
the first point to notice, and for this reason they are
usually overcast or seamed to the material as closely as
possible round the ring of metal made for the purpose.
The shank or back of the hook is also sewn in the same
way, and the eye has a few stitches taken each side above
the rings ; sometimes buttonholing is used instead of
overcasting, but this, besides being more difficult, is fre-
quently not so secure, as it is not easy to take a firm hold
of the material under the rings. When used for fastening
dress bodices the edges of the eyes are buttonholed over
with silk twist to prevent any of the metal gleaming
through and possibly showing on the right side.
Loops. — Loops are used in conjunction with hooks
instead of eyes in places where the latter would have
to be on the right side. They are also sometimes used
with buttons for extremely thin or thick places where
Fig. '45.
it would be impossible to make a buttonhole ; such
places frequently occur in children's pinafores and
dresses.
Those employed for hooks are quite flat, lying on the
material ; those used for buttons are usually at the edge
of the material, and are made sufficiently large for the
FASTENINGS. 69
buttons to pass through. Both kinds are made by stranding
across with three or four threads, the former having the
threads drawn close to the material with the strands
sufficiently large to hold the hook, the latter with the
strands left quite loose so as to go over the button, and
the space of the material left between the ends of the
strands about equal to the diameter of the button. The
strands are buttonholed over, with the stitches put as
closely together as possible and carefully fastened off on
the wrong side ; the purled edge of the buttonholing
should come to the outside edge of the loop.
Eyelet Holes. — Eyelets or holes to let in light are
small rounded perforations overcast or buttonholed round
to prevent them tearing or fraying. Stilettoes, originally
a name given to a pointed dagger, are used for making
the holes ; they consist of a round pencil-like blade of
Fig. 46— Eyelet Holes.
A, Overcast ; B, Buttonholed.
steel or ivory, and are sometimes placed in handles of
fancy metals, mother-of-pearl, etc. The pointed blades
of small scissors may be used in place of a stiletto, but
there is always the danger of these not making the hole
round. Eyelet hples are chiefly used as a dress fastening,
TO HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
either for hooka or for lacing. If worked with buttonholing
the purl edge ought to form a ring on the surrounding
material and not fall to the edge of the hole ae in a
buttonhole.
For hookB the holes are better if merely overcaat
closely round, as the thicker buttonholed edge is apt
to be in the way in fastening. The buttonholed holes
are ornamental, and used chiefly for lacing.
Tapes. — Tape, that is, a narrow, ribbon-like fillet
or hand made of cotton or linen, is employed chiefly in
Fio. 47— Tapes.
washing articles, either as a means of fastening or for
loops for hanging-up purposes. Tape is to be had in
various sizes, from one-eighth of an inch to two inches
wide ; narrow ones are frequently used instead of gathers
to draw up fulness, because during washing it may be
pulled out quite flat and render ironiugeasier. The ends of
tapes, whether for loops or strings, are secured by a square
of sewing the size of the width of the tape, and are almost
FASTENINGS, 71
always placed on the wrong side. In order to make this
square, turn down the end of the tape once as narrow
as possible, then fold the corner across to the selvedge
diagonally, which will give the right size of the square,
and crease the square across so as to mark it clearly for
sewing. The three outside edges of the square, that is,
the two selvedges and the end, are hemmed down on to
the material ; the fourth side, that is, across the tape
parallel to the end, is sewn in various ways ; if the tape
is being put on to a hem, as for a pillow-case string, it is
seamed, stitched or hemmed across. If, again, it forms
one fastening of a loop or a string at the end of a band or
hem, it is stitched across about two threads from the edge
on the right side, or else seamed at the very edge on the
right side. For loops it is usual to sew both ends of the
tape in two squares side by side, and the two inner sides
which will consequently join are seamed together first
on the wrong side or fastened across afterwards with
small cross stitches. The ends of strings are neatened
with a very narrow hem, the raw edges buttonholed over
or else cut on the cross.
72
CHAPTER V.
PATCHING AND DARNING.
Mending. — This art may be roughly divided under two
heads — (1) patching, (2) darning. The importance of both
methods deserves the fullest consideration, but it should
be remembered that good mending greatly depends upon
understanding the original rules and methods of making.
This is especially the case in repairing all articles of cloth-
ing, but is also applicable to household sewing in general.
Patching.
Patching is the art of restoring the worn parts of any
article by means of inserting better material. Its object
is to preserve those paits which, owing to greater strain,
have become worn before the remainder, and it is used
when the rents or torn places are too large for darning.
Articles worn more or less evenly all over should not be
patched ; the extra material of the patch will prove too
strong, and will only strain, if not tear, the remaining
parts. Two classes of patches may be noted : the first,
perhaps, will be more generally understood under the
head of repairing. It includes such mending as necessi-
tates the putting in a new portion of a garment, such as
collars, cuffs, bands, skirt facings, shirt fronts, etc.
These repairs will be best understood by studying the
method? of making the original garment,
PATCHING AND DARNING, 73
The second class of patching refers to the cutting
away of worn parts and holes, and actually inserting better
material.
Textiles of all kinds will allow of both classes of
patching, but care must be taken to see that the patch
agrees with the original substance in colour and quahty.
New material must be carefully avoided, as being
stronger it is apt to tear the article outside the patch. If
it is impossible to obtain parbially worn pieces for mending,
material of much thinner quality should be chosen, and in
all cases calico or linen should be washed before using.
A good plan in the case of prints and dress materials is to
expose them in the sun to fade, but in some cases washing
will also be found sufficient. Dresses invariably lose
some of the original brightness of colour during wear, so
that care in these small details vdll amply repay the
worker, as undoubtedly one of the primary principles of
patching is that the repair should be as little visible as
possible when completed. Another very important point
to consider in inserted patching is, that the warp of
both article and patch should run in the same direction ;
as a general rule the selvedges of all garments run
lengthwise, i,e,, from head to foot, the reason being that
the warp threads are the stronger ; where there is no
direct means of knowing the position of the selvedge
the warp threads may be discovered by pulhng the
material in different directions, and these threads being
stronger will easily be detected as allowing less yielding
and stretching. If this method fails there still remains
the plan of fraying out a few threads ; the weft ones will
present somewhat of a waved appearance, while the warp
will appear comparatively smooth.
The use of alj Jcinds of patching is so very evident that
74
HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
it barely needs comment. Whether it be employed for
outward appearance, personal comforfc, or economical
purposes it will need but sUght experimental practice
to prove its worth.
Inserted patches may be divided into four kinds, viz.
(1) calico, (2) flannel, (3) damask, (4) dress.
Calioo Patohes. — These are the various patches
Fig. 48 — Patched Garment
A, Triangular patch ; B, Square patch.
(known also as linen patches) used for the repairing of
underlinen, aprons, pillow-cases, etc., and in shape may
be either square, oblong, or triangular.
Square patches are those in most general use, but
where the worn part is distinctly longer in one direction
PATCHING AND DARNING. 75
an oblong one may be substituted. Examples of this
latter shape may be frequently seen at the openings of
nightdresses, chemises, etc., where the rent has been
simply one straight tear lengthwise. Triangular patches
are useful for small corner pieces, and in the case of a
garment the third side usually forms part of a seam.
They are most generally used for worn places underneath
sleeves, the legs of drawers or elbows. In cutting, only
one side must be on the cross of the material, the two
others being perfectly straight, and the warp and weft
threads sewn exactly to meet those of the article patched ;
in other words, one of the angles of a triangular patch
must be a right angle.
The methods of preparing and sewing in calico patches
are numerous, but whichever system is adopted, a few
general rules must be observed : (1) the. patch when
complete must be on the wrong side ; (2) the corners
must be secure and firmly sewn ; (3) the widths of hems
(varying according to the thickness of the material) must
be even at each side. Hemming the patch on the wrong
side and felling on the right is the easiest and most
general plan adopted, and hemming being the only stitch
employed, it is sometimes called the hemmed patch.
Some patchers, however, prefer seaming the patch on
the right side and felling it back on the wrong ; the effect
when completed is very similar, and the preparation for
both is exactly the same.
Calico patches require there strikings. The first is to
mark how much material outside the hole is to be cut
away, which should be on the right side, that is, with the
Hne raised on to the outside of the garment. The second
striking (a, ft, c, d)^ also on the right side, is to mark the
amount left for the turnings of the fell, usually about a
76 HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
quarter of an inch. The third {e,f, g, h), marks the actual
width of the fell, varying according to the thiekneBS
of the material from a. quarter to half an inch ; and aa
this is where the patch will be sewn on, it will be
found easier it the striking or raised line is on the
wrong side. The actual patch must be nest prepared, and
this also will require three strikings. The first is to mark
the size of the second striking on the material (a, b, c, d),
and as the fell will be hemmed or seamed on to this line
it requires to be on the right side. The second striking
f\^^'%\n\
W^WW^
i^^i^-x±r =
___jj_ . -
ji-|lt^
""X' "'
- :
It ' 1 ' ■
■"i ~' ' ' ~
- -4^-
"Hh "" 4i^"" '""'"' — "^
"± ■": ■ "
7N--I-
"H~ " "Ht""^ ~^
J, 49— Calico Palttiiiig (chefjiieriNi liiiis repreiwiit a quarter of 1
C, Frepamtion of garment ; D, Preparation of patch.
inch).
is for the depth of the fell, which naturally must he the
same as that allowed on the garment ; this will form the
outside edge (e, /, g. A), so the striking will require to be
on the wrong side. The third striking is merely to allow
for the turnings of the patch, usually about a sixth of an
inch, and may be on either side. Having so far pre-
pared both garment and patch, the next point will be to
cut out the patch by the outside striking. If the patch
is to bo seamed in, the worn part of the garment must
bo removed so far as the first striking, the corners cut
withjn two threads of the second striking, and the patch
PATCHING AND DARNING. 77
seamed in on the right side, making a, h, c, d in both to
correspond. This patch is finally felled back on the
wrong side, turning the edges in to e, /, g, h., which, if
correctly marked, should exactly meet the outside strik-
ing of the garment. When the simpler plan of hemming
the patch on both sides is adopted, it is immaterial
whether the worn part is cut away at the beginning or
just before felling ; the former plan renders the fixing of the
patch for the first hemming (wrong side) somewhat more
difficult, and inexperienced workers frequently stretch
the large hole thus made out of shape ; still, on the other
hand, there is always the danger of cutting through the
patch as well as the worn material if the latter plan is
adopted. The old German method of calico patching is
gradually losing favour ; with the greatest care and neat-
ness it always appears more or less clumsy, besides being
very difficult to set in. The method of preparation is ex-
actly the same as for a seamed patch ; instead, however,
of being sewn in on the right side it is stitched, back-
stitched or hemmed on the wrong side, and the fell rolled
as small and round as possible instead of lying quite flat.
Flannel Patohes. — These are by far the easiest of all
patches. Their chief feature is, that, owing to the thick-
ness of the material, no turnings are required for the
edges of the fell, which, as in the case of most flannel
seams, are protected by herringbone stitch : for the
same reason, striking for the preparation is out of the
question, therefore all points must be marked by small
pins or tackings in coloured cotton.
The amount of worn material to be removed must
be first decided upon, and then the piece cut for the
patch, which must be twelve threads larger (about half
an inch) on every side ; next, the patch must be tacked
78 HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
and herriogboDed on to the wrong side of the article,
taking care that they agree with each other respecting
the fall of the selvedge and nap, and that the warp and
weft threads run parallel. The extra twelve threads on
each side of the patch are for the fell; the worn part may
he cut away before or after the fixing, but care must be
taken to leave twelve threads again on every side for the
upper part of the fell. The berringboning should cover
four threads, so, when both wrong and right sides of the
patch are herrlngboned, it the counting has been correct,
four dear threads in the centre of the fell will be left.
The herringboning should be taken through the patch
and material together on one side only, as, for the sake
of protection, the cotton is brought over the raw edges,
and the second side of the stitch taken merely through
the single flannel of the garment. The rule for herring-
boned fells deviates slightly, according to taste and style
PATCHING AND DARNING.
79
of the fabric; but, as a general rule, for patching the
space between the two rows of stitching must be the
same as the space covered by a single row.
The shapes of flannel patches are : (1) square, (2) ob-
long, (3) triangular.
Damask Patches. — As they are chiefly employed in
repairing table Unen the primary consideration must be
to make them as flat and invisible as possible ; for this
reason, damask resembling the original article is very de-
FiG. 51— Damask Patch.
sirable, and the plan of buying serviettes to match the
tablecloth has much to recommend it, as the good parts
of partially worn ones may be very successfully utilised
for this purpose. Damasks are either twilled or plain,
and as in other patches, the materials must match in the
fall of the selvedge and right and wrong sides; this is
most important in twilled damasks, because, if inserted
otherwise, the diagonals will run in opposite directions.
These patches may be treated like calico, but owing
to the nature of the fabric the " darning in " method will
So HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
prove superior. In adopting this latter plan, the finest
'* flourishing thread" or embroidery cotton will be re-
quired.
The hole is cut cleanly into a square or oblong,
sufficiently large to remove all thin parts, and the patch
cut exactly the size of the hole. It is then darned in with
a single stitch, taken from four to six threads deep alter-
nately in patch and article ; the stitch must be perfectly
upright, the needle being always carried between the two
raw edges, underneath the damask and through up on
the right side. In turning the corners, the last four or
six stitches of the previous row on the patch are re-worked
in the opposite direction, thus making the corners firm
and secure.
Dpess Patohes. — Various kinds of dress patches are
to be seen, and **fine drawing" is frequently utilised for
this purpose.
It is most important to match the patterns of figured
and striped materials, so that when finished the con-
tinuity of the design will remain unbroken. In shape
they do not differ from any of the previous patches, and
if sewn with cotton or silk to match in colour, the
appearance will be greatly improved.
It is desirable to iron all patches when completed, but
in woollen material it requires very special attention ; in
such cases they are better ironed under a damped cloth,
and when possible, on both right and wrong side, taking
care, of course, that the iron does not come in contact
with the right side of the material. Three distinct
methods of dress patching may be noted: —
(1) The ordinary method known generally as print
patching ; (2) the Frencl^or Belgian ; (3) the tailor's.
Print patches are seamed in from fche right side with
PATCHING AND DARNING. 8t
turnings on both patch and article of a quarter to half an
inch — these naturally being turned in on the wrong aide ;
woollen material may be also treated in this manner, and
the seaming worked with a thread frayed from the same
A
substance bo as to be less visible than ordinary silk or
cotton. The French and Belgians treat this patch very
much in the same way, only the seaming is worked on
the wrong side instead of on th& right. The edges of the
wrong side are laid back flat on either side of the seam,
6
82 HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
the comers trimmed and cut to within two threads of
the sewing, and then when not covered by dress hning,
etc., are neatly buttonholed or overcast. Some people,
however, prefer turning both edges back on the patch
itself, and overcasting or buttonholing them together, but
the result of this will not be nearly so flat and smooth
when viewed from the right side.
Tailor's patches when successfully inserted call forth
universal approbation, chiefly because no stitches are
visible on the right side. The wrong side appears
similar to the other methods, but on careful examination
it will be seen that the seam is worked with stitching
instead of seaming. It is put in as follows : Eemove all
worn parts, cutting the hole into a square, oblong, or
triangle, and mark the material with chalk one-quarter of
an inch beyond. Next, chalk a piece of material exactly
the same size for the patch and cut it out one-quarter of
an inch larger. Notch the corners of the hole to within
two threads of the chalked Hne and then stitch the Hnes
of the patch and garment together with the right sides
of both facing one another. Finally, wedge a small
piece out of the corner of the turnings of the patch to
make them lie flat, and then overcast or buttonhole them
and press the seam well. Tailor's chalk greatly facihtates
dress patching, as points and seams may be marked with
it without injury to colours or fabrics.
Tailors frequently employ *'fine drawing" for insert-
ing patches, especially in repairing thick cloth garments.
The patch requires to be prepared in the same manner
as for damask, but instead of being darned in, the old
German seam or ** fine drawing " stitch is used. For very
thick cloths the needle is taken throtcgh the thickness of
the material and not imder and over as in calico, thus
making almost invisible stitches (page 13).
PATCHING AND DARNING. 83
Dabning.
Darning is the art of restoring the worn parts of any
fabric by means of inserting new threads. From its
similarity to weaving it is sometimes called hand-
weaving. It is most commonly used in thin places, for
small rents and tears, and when it is impossible to pro-
cure material resembling the worn article. Care must
be taken that the new threads inserted agree with the
original in quality, texture and size. With the exception
of Swiss and stocking- web darning, all darns should be
worked on the wrong side, beginning at the top left-
hand corner ; linen dams may be stretched on cardboard
to assist the worker, and for rounded surfaces, such as
the heels and toes of stockings, wooden balls and eggs
can be used. Splitting the warp threads while darning
in the weft is a very common fault, and one to be
specially guarded against, as it weakens the darn and
spoils the appearance.
The simplest method of teaching darning is on single
thread canvas; the threads can be easily seen and
counted and the method clearly explained, so that when
afterwards worked on ordinary fabric the difficulties will
be considerably lessened. Stocking- web, i.e., a material
representing coarse knitting, is much used for this pur-
pose in elementary schools with very good results ; owing
to its elasticity it has an advantage over canvas, as the
evils of puckering can be encountered, but except for
twill, Swiss, and stocking-web darns, it is much more
difficult to manipulate, especially for beginners. All
lessons on darning should be illustrated by diagrams,
and the stitches carefully explained on chequered black-
boards, or demonstrating frames. Coloured cottons and
84 HOUSEHOLD SEWING,
wools will facilitate the lesson, making the stitches more
visible and the errors more quickly detected.
Dams may be roughly classified as follows : —
1. Eunning.
2. Plain.
3. Damask, (a) Plain or diapered, [h) Twill.
4. Swiss and Stocking-web.
5. Hedge-tear, Catch or Triangular.
6. Crosscut, Breakfast or Diagonal.
Running Darns. — These consist merely of a certain
number of rows of running laid side by side, and worked
on the wrong side, the same threads being taken up on
the needle every alternate row. They may be almost
any geometrical shape, square, diamond and waved being
the most common, and the threads are put in the warp
way if possible as these are the stronger. Small loops
require to be left at the end of each row to allow for
shrinkage in washing ; in calico and linen many people
prefer these loops to be cut, so as to allow them to
work in and become a part of the fabric. The use of
these darns is to strengthen weak places where an
actual hole has not been worn ; generally the stitch is
exactly the same as in running, but occasionally in
thick articles, especially coarsely knitted ones, it pro-
ceeds by one thread instead of two. The number of
threads left between each row should correspond with
the number taken up for each stitch. Square-shaped
darns are mostly used for strong fabrics, but for thin
and flexible materials diamond or waved are more suit-
able ; in the former the ends, i.e., the top and bottom of
the square, are worked in a straight line, and unless the
material is very strong, the darn is apt to pull away from
Patching and darning. 85
the Burrounding material. When worked with the ends
pointed or a series of points (waved) the strain does not
iiii^
pmipi
:U
fall successively upon one or two threads, but is more
evenly distributed.
Plain Darns. — Where articles are actually worn into
holes some method of darning must he adopted to fill
such spaces so as to resemble the original weaving aa
85 HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
nearly as posgible; plain, damask and stocking- web
darns are usually adopted for this purpose. Plain darns
are an iriiitation of ordinary weaving where no patterns
are interwoven or printed ; the warp threads are inserted
first, a small margin of running darn being used round
the edge of the hole to strengthen the surrounding fabric
and also to hold the dam in its right position. The hole
may either be left its natural shape or cut evenly into
squares or oblongs ; at any rate, all loose and frayed edges
must be trimmed. The amount of running dam em-
FlO, 64— Plain Dam.
ployed depends entirely upon the thinness of the fabric
surrounding the bole, and so must be left to the dis-
cretion of the worker. The weft threads are nest in-
serted, each being carried alternately over and under the
warp threads, thus forming a kind of close lattice work.
Every one of these threads is also preceded and finished
by a few running stitches, generally equal in number to
those employed for the warp side. Loops of thread at
the end of each row must not be omitted, and the shapes
of the edges are treated as in running dams.
PATCHING AND DARNING.
B
lel.IIsI.IIillll-IIIIEIIII'I
88 HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
Damask Darns. — These are simply variations of plain
darns, and, as the name implies, are used for mending
damask articles. Two kinds may be noted : (1) diaper
or plain, (2) twill. Both kinds are worked like ordinary
darns as far as the warp threads are concerned; the
pattern is formed by taking up and passing over a
different number of the strands when inserting the weft
threads. A small drawing of the design on chequered
paper is almost essential; the threads to be taken up
can be indicated by dots, and the intervening spaces will
show the strands over which the needle is to pass, but it
must not be forgotten that the darn is worked on the
wrong side, so the drawing must be designed from the
same aspect. Twill damasks are woven diagonally ; in
darning them one thread must be taken and three or
four passed over, and in each row this thread must
be worked one or two threads to the right or left of the
preceding one, according to the nature of the weave.
Tablecloths and similar articles do not generally consist
of a plain twill damask, but have floral or geometrical
designs interwoven, in which case the pattern must be
drawn and worked into its place as in a diapered pattern.
Damask darns should be worked with very fine flourish-
ing thread, but as it is sometimes very difficult to pro-
cure, and also unpleasant to use owing to its uneven
nature, embroidery cotton may be very successfully
utilised in its stead (page 87).
Stooking-web and Swiss Darns. — The one name
might certainly include both of these darns, as they are
practically the same thing; custom has, however, desig-
nated as Swiss darning only the strengthening pf a weak
place in a knitted article, while stocking-web refers
to the mending of an actual hole in the same kind of
PATCHING AND DARNING.
fabric. It is a method much more commonly a
on the Continent than in England, perhaps because
knitted garments and stockings are so much more popular
amongst the foreign peasantry, and as it is thoroughly
taught in every school the natural result is that its
manipulation seems to be as easy to the housekeeper
as any other kind of darning. The stitch can represent
tt3 ia i gj
Fio. S6— Stocking-web Darr
a, StrsDiliaff for canlboanl ; b, StratnliDg on stockmg-web ; c, Pima kuittiug
atitcl] ; d. Purl knitting Htituh ; e, Narrawings or takiiigs-iu.
accurately plain or purl knitting, and is very firm and
elastic when completed, being also practically invisible.
Unlike all other darns, this is commenced at the bottom
right-hand comer and worked on the right side. For
teaching purposes it will be found wiser to begin on card-
board, with threads stranded ; the accompanying diagram
illustrates the various methods of procedure, the first
representing the stranding of the cardboard. As far as
go HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
possible, when working an actual hole the stitches should
be unpicked across the top and bottom so as to make it
square or oblong. The loose pieces at the sides of the
hole must be turned underneath until the dam is com-
pleted. The stranding requires one more point at the
top than the bottom ; for example, if the bottom consist
of six clear stitches the top must have seven points for
stranding, and yet only have the same number of stitches
when complete. The difficulty is surmounted by having
five whole stitches, with half a one on either side, the
reason of this being the actual nature of the knitting.
The stranding begins at the bottom right-hand comer and
proceeds through the half stitch on the top right hand, up
through the whole stitch to the left of this, back through
the first bottom stitch, up through the next, and so on
till the whole is completed, always taking care to begin
and end at the bottom right- and left-hand corners
respectively. When working on cardboard it is necessary
to take the first row of stitches right through as well as
the ones at the end of each row for the sake of firmness ;
the second row is worked with the board turned upside
down, and continued as before from right to left. Figures
c and d illustrate plain and purl stitches ; where nar-
rowings or takings-in occur in a garment the stranding
must be done according to Figure e, so as to enable two
stitches to be taken together when required ; each nar-
rowing will require an extra dot. In Swiss dams we have
exactly the some stitch, only, of course, as there is no
hole the stranding is not necessary, and the threads are
simply worked over each stitch of the worn part. Holes
of all sorts should be stretched on cardboard before being
stranded ; each row of stitches must be strengthened at
the sides with Swiss darning, and each stranding cotton
PATCHING AND DARNING. 91
cut and drawn out separately white working the last row.
Finally, the wrong aide ia made neat, the worn, loose
material frayed away, and all enda made aeeure.
Hedge-tear, Catoh or Triangular Dam.— These
moat commonly occur in outside garments, auch as dresses
and aprona, which have been caught suddenly on aharp
objects like nails, brier bushes, etc., the result being a tear
iSliSIJSiililiSiiiii!
^nHRuniins
-fj^f
iF
€
tilt
t
(
krf-
^ tTn-
FlO. G7 — Hedge-tear Daxn.
resembling somewhat two sides of a square. The atitch
employed for mending theae tears is the running dam, by
which the tear ia gently drawn together. Four to eight
stitches are taken on either aide of the tear, which may
be continued to the corner, and the adjoining side worked
in the same manner to meet it ; or each aide may be con-
tinued down to the outside level of stitches ao as to make
92 HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
B, oomplete Bqu&re corner. The former is the German
method, but the latter is undeniably stronger. While
druwing the needle and thread through the material it
IB wise to hold the edges of the tear firmly with the left
hand so as to prevent them fraying, and also to continue
the darning two or three rows beyond the ends of the tear
for the sake of strength. The darn must be begun at the
top left-hand corner of the selvedge way of the material,
with the warp threads lying along the finger and the weft
threads across it. Both the warp and weft threads are
worked in the corner, the stitches here being made to
represent a series of steps, crosses, right angles, etc.
Fio. 58— Diagonal Darn.
PATCHING AND DARNING. 93
Crossout, Breakfast, or Diagonal Darns. — With the
exception of shape, these dams are the same as the hedge-
tear dams. The tear usually occurs in damask through
careless handhng of a knife, causing both the warp and
weft threads to be cut diagonally ; they will be found at
all angles, and require very careful manipulation in
mending. Various shapes for this dam are seen ; the
easiest method undoubtedly is to draw the cut together
with running dam, making the edges (where the loops
at the end of each row occur) parallel to the tear.
Unlike the usual running dam it is crossed ; this pre-
vents the tear being drawn open when it is used, and
the shape and method of the weft darning must exactly
match that employed for the warp ; in other words, the
darn when complete must represent two exact rhom-
boids which cross each other in the centre where the tear
originally occurred.
94
CHAPTEK VL
CLOTHING— CLOTHING MATERIALS.
The primary object of clothing is to retain the natural
temperature (98*4° Fahr.) of <the body. The temperature
of the body is regulated by the amount of heat gained or
lost. Heat is produced chiefly by food, which in its turn
is regulated by (1) exercise, (2) atmosphere, (3) clothing.
Clothing is in itself only warm when it does not lessen or
conduct away personal heat, and when the body is warmly
clad the quantity of food required is not so great, as less
heat is lost. Heat is lost from the body chiefly through
respiration, conduction, evaporation, and radiation ;
clothing cannot, of course, check the loss of heat through
respiration, that is, breathing, but it can considerably
control it as regards the three latter. Perhaps conduc-
tion, or the coming in contact with cold or warm objects,
chiefly affects clothing, and the amoimt of heat lost
through this channel varies considerably, according to the
nature of the objects in question. Certain woods, for
example, do not readily become heated when brought
into contact with boihng liquids, hence wooden spoons
are used in cooking instead of metal ones, which quickly
become unbearably hot. If the natural temperature of
the body is not maintained sickness ensues, and if raised
or lowered only a few degrees death follows. It is,
therefore, of the utmost importance that such clothing
CLOTHING— CLOTHING MATERIALS. 95
should be provided as will promote this equahty of
heat, and at the same time permit the evaporation of the
natural perspiration of the body as well as the radiation
of heat into space. Through the process of radiating or
giving off heat into surrounding air, much heat may be
gained or lost, and radiation of heat in clothing may be
influenced considerably through the power of colour
attractions. Black, for example, will absorb far more
heat from the sun than white, a testimony very practically
borne out by the natives of India and other hot climates.
A certain amount of porosity is required in clothing
materials to allow the natural moisture from the skin to
be gradually given off into the air through evaporation,
as well as to allow air to gain access to the body. Air is
one of the best non-conductors of heat, so loosely made
garments admitting a certain amount of air to the body
will be much warmer than tight ones which exclude the
air. At the same time, clothing must not be so loose or
so thin as to admit the cold, outside air of winter, but only
so much as will be warmed by the natural heat of the
body and will allow free ventilation. Weighty clothing
will not necessarily increase the warmth, and for the
comfort and ease of the wearer it should be as light as
possible ; a certain amount of weight is unavoidable, and
this should be so evenly distributed as to dispense with
undue strain on any one organ of the body. Heaviness
may be sometimes rectified by making the garments of
the right material to exactly fit the figure, thus avoiding
superfluous fulness in one part. Summer is the time
when the body very freely perspires, so it is important
that the garments next to the skin should be good
absorbents of moisture, not, as in the case of hnen,
retaining it to such an extent as to become thoroughly
96 HOUSEHOLD SEWING,
wet. Good absorbents will allow the moisture to pass
gradually off into the air and prevent the surface be-
coming wet, whereas bad ones will act as a sort of glass
case and retain the moisture next to the skin. Moisture
and water are very good conductors of heat ; this fact can
be practically tested by passing from a room to a bath of
exactly the same temperature, the latter would feel con-
siderably the colder of the two. Moisture, therefore,
retained next to the skin feels cold and produces chills.
More loss of heat is occasioned in winter through radiation
because the difference between the temperature of the
atmosphere and body is greater, and so causes more
radiation of bodily warmth. Sleeping clothes must be of
such a nature as to keep an equable temperature, and not so
light as to produce chilliness, or so warm as to cause the
skin to perspire. All parts of the human body require to
be at rest during sleep, and harsh and coarse sleeping
garments are not advisable, as they are apt to irritate and
excite the skin. Some notion of ideal clothing may be
gathered from comprehending Nature's provision for birds,
four-footed animals, etc., which are warm through their
non-conducting properties, as well as Hght and admitting
free ventilation.
Clothing materials are chiefly products of the animal
and vegetable kingdoms, and may be classified as
follows : —
1. Animal.— (a) Wool, (b) Hair, (c) Skins, (d) Silk,
(e) Feathers.
2. Vegetable. — (a) Cotton, (6) Flax, (c) Jute and
Hemp, (d) India-rubber.
Wool, silk, linen and cotton form the foundation of
all textiles, and are the principal fibres used for clothing
materials.
CLOTHING— CLOTHING MATERIALS, 97
Wool. — Wool is the skin appendage of the sheep, and
has been used for clothing purposes from the earliest
times. Its chief features are : —
1. Non-conduction of heat.
2. Strength, combined with softness, fineness and
elasticity.
3. Disposition to felt.
4. Eeadiness to absorb dyes.
Wool differs from ordinary hair in its structure,
although strictly speaking it is a hair fibre. Custom has,
however, designated hair to mean stiff and straight
animal fibres, while the flexible, wavy and curly ones are
known as wool. When microscopically examined the
reason of this distinction is quite evident, the formation
of the two fibres being quite different. The appearance
of hair is smooth and even ; wool, on the contrary, is very
irregular, having numbers of infinitesimal scales over-
lapping each other, known as serrations or notches. It
is these serrations, numbering from 1800 to 2800 per
inch, which give wool its peculiar felting quality, a pro-
perty belonging to no other textile fabric. The serrations
taper from the root outwards, and when loosened by
potash will cHng closely to more fibres. The felting,
known also as fulhng and milling, is brought about by
heat, moisture and pressure, during which processes the
bulk is reduced in length and width but increased in
thickness. The readiness with which it absorbs dye is
due partly to the minute undulations caused by the knitting
together of the serrations. The effect of different dyes on
wool varies somewhat, some scarlets and browns making
the wool harsh, while other agents, especially indigoes,
increase its weight and consequently its value. As a non-
7
98 HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
conductor of heat, wool takes the foremost place in
clothing fabrics. It also quickly absorbs moisture, and
does not readily become damp with perspiration. Its
open, rough structure makes it further capable of holding
a certain amount of air as well as of allowing free venti-
lation. Being strong and durable, it possesses the best
characteristics of good dress materials. Owing to its
elasticity it greatly resists outside forces, besides retaining
its original softness during wear. The principal wool-
producing countries are : —
1. Germany. Chiefly Silesia and Saxony.
2. Australia and New Zealand. Known in trade
as Colonial wools.
3. Great Britain. Supplying South Down, Lincoln,
Leicester, Cheviot, Shetland and Welsh wools.
4. South Africa. Generally called Cape wools.
5. Eussia. From the neighbourhood of Odessa.
6. South America. Chiefly from Buenos Ayres
district.
The finest wool is generally known as lamb's wool,
as it is clipped from the animal when only about six
months old. The second shearing is somewhat thicker,
and receives the name of yearlings ; all subsequent
growths come under the head of fleece. Short staple
wool, that is, wool in which the groups or locks of fibres
are short, is converted into woollen yarn, while the longer
ones prove more economical for worsted yarns. These
two yarns are both used for spinning. Their appearances
are decidedly dissimilar, woollen yarn being merely
tangled meshes with an uneven surface, while in worsted
he fibres are symmetrical and the serrations all run in
the same direction. The Llama, Alpaca, Thibet and
CLOTHING— CLOTHING MATERIALS, gg
Angora goats all supply hair closely allied to wool, and on
account of their beautiful lustre are greatly used in the
manufacture of fine fabrics.
Silk. — Silk is the natural production of the silkworm,
a wormlike creature belonging to the Bombyx Moth tribe.
The eggs are hatched in spring, and the worm or cater-
pillar grows rapidly, feeding principally on mulberry
leaves. Next it produces its small oval cocoon, round
which the silk is spun. The mouth of a silkworm is
fitted with a spinnerette, through which the silk is
emitted, having been previously secreted by a pair of
glands placed at either side of the body. The silk thread
consists of two fibres of purely animal matter, bound
together by a gummy substance chemically called sericin.
During this process the silkworm gradually decreases in
size, then sheds its skin, and finally, after a chrysalis
stage, develops into a butterfly moth. In order to re-
move the silk from the cocoons, they are plunged into
boiling water and soap, which loosens the gum ; then
the winder catches several of the loosened ends with a
soft brush and winds them together as one thread on
reels, when they are ready for re-winding by machinery
in hanks or skeins. The silkworm is hardly cultivated in
England, but large quantities of raw silk are imported,
chiefly from France. The raw silk is of two kinds, neat
and spun. The former is in the hank form, being wound
direct from the cocoon, and the latter is the thread spun
from the waste made in winding, and from any cocoons
which may have become tangled and broken. Before silk
is fit for weaving it must be converted into one of three
forms, known respectively as Singles, Tram and Organ-
zine. Singles is the single reeled thread twisted to give
strength and firmness. Tram consists of two or more
loo HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
threads twisted together, and this is the kind usually
employed for the weft threads in weaving. Organzine
or thrown silk is made of several singles twisted together
in the opposite direction to that of the twist in the
singles themselves ; being consequently much stronger, it
is used for the warp threads. The chief characteristics
of silk are : (1) lustre, (2) strength, (3) fineness. Its
appearance under a microscope is an even, round, glass-
like fibre ; its strength is three times as great as linen.
No other textile fibre can be spun to such a degree of
fineness combined with elasticity ; mohair and China grass
are the only threads which can in any way approach it
in lustre, and these fall far below it in this respect. It is
frequently introduced into woollen goods to impart lustre,
and it ranks next to wool as a non-conductor of heat.
Cotton. — Cotton is a vegetable fibre obtained from
the downy lining of the seed pod of the cotton plant. The
plant belongs to the mallow order, but this particular
species only flourishes in warm cHmates ; from the earliest
times India has been the principal cotton -producing
country. Until the beginning of the present century
European cotton-spinners were mostly dependent upon
Asia and the West Indies for the raw material, but since
then it has been grown in other countries, notably in the
Southern United States, Brazil and Egypt. India not
only was the first country to grow cotton, but also was
the originator of its manufacture into a textile fabric.
Although the Indians excelled in weaving with the crud-
est of spindles, and have produced the finest of muslins,
they do not seem to have had that inventive genius
necessary to improve or develop their appUances into
any kind of mechanical perfection. The spinning-jenny,
a complicated weaving machine, was invented by James
CLOTHING— CLOTHING MATERIALS, lOi
Hargreaves of Blackburn in 1767, and shortly afterwards
Arkwright, also a Lancashire weaver, produced his water
frame. These two inventions form the foundation of all
subsequent weaving machinery, and Lancashire still
remains the leading centre of the cotton manufacture.
A cotton fibre is flat and twisted, with clear edges, some-
what resembhng a wrinkled ribbon, and varying in width
from ^^ to -^^jsjs of an inch. It is capable of being
spun to a very great length, and this, combined with its
fineness, strength and cheapness, causes it very largely
to be used in manufacture conjointly with wool and silk.
Purely cotton textiles are numerous — calico, print, jean,
muslin, lace, sheetings and velveteens being some of its
products. When blended with wool it is extensively
used in the making of cheap cloths, and it also forms the
warp threads in what are known as Union Textiles. It
is further frequently mixed with inferior silks, and is
used for the backs of cheap velvets. Its power of con-
ducting heat is greater than either wool or silk, but con-
siderably less than linen.
Linen. — Linen is obtained from the flax plant, a small
delicate annual with a tiny blue flower. The plant is
pulled by hand in summer, the seeds, known in com-
merce as linseed, being removed and the straw sub-
jected to various processes to separate the fibrous part
which constitutes the linen. First, it is steeped in
water until it is quite rotten, and then passed through a
drying and beating process on revolving wheels until
everything foreign is removed, when it is ready for
manufacture. Flax has also been used from very reinote
ages as a textile fabric, Egypt being the chief centre of
its activity, and many linen mummy cloths have been
discovered, some indeed of exceedingly fine texture. The
I02 HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
principal linen-producing countries of the present day are
Ireland, France, Belgium and Germany. Belfast is the
chief centre of the Irish trade, and plain linen goods are
also manufactured in Great Britain, notably in Fifeshire
and Yorkshire. The flax fibre is round and irregular, very
durable, and capable of very extensive bleaching. Plain
linen has a simple weave with the weft threads alter-
nately interspersing the warp ones, and when woven
with a pattern, it is usually called damask. As a cloth-
ing material it should not be placed in close proximity to
the skin, as it is a very good conductor of heat.
Jute and Hemp. — These plants are only used in
manufacturing very rough textiles : in form they re-
semble coarse and inferior flax.
India-rubber. — India-rubber is derived from the
juice of various trees, and is extensively employed for
waterproof goods; owing to its impermeable nature it
will not allow free evaporation of perspiration, so it
should only be worn for a short time.
Skins. — Skins supply two clothing materials, furs
and leather. Furs are the dried skins of various animals,
such as the bear, beaver, sable, etc., with the hair left,
and on account of their capacity of retaining heat are an
ideal clothing. Leather is the tanned skins of various
animals, notably oxen and calves, with the hair removed.
It is chiefly used in the manufacture of boots and shoes.
I03
CHAPTER VII.
DYEING, WIDTHS AND IDENTIFICATION OF
MATERIALS.
Dyeing is the art of imparting colour to textile and
other materials, and has been practised amongst Eastern
nations from the earliest ages. The ancient Hebrews
seem to have been acquainted with a few colours, and
probably they acquired a certain knowledge of dyeing
from the Egyptians and Phoenicians. The famous Tyr-
ian purple obtained from a species of shell fish is said
to have been discovered in the year B.C. 1500, and
amongst the ruins of Pompeii is to be found a Eoman
dyer's shop with all its apparatus.
Dye stuffs of the present day may be divided into two
classes — viz,, natural and artificial. Natural dyes belong
chiefly to the vegetable kingdom, and are obtained from
the roots, wood, bark, leaves, flowers, and seeds of
various plants. Sometimes the whole plant yields the
dye, more frequently it is extracted from one or other of
its parts. The principal plants supplying dyes are : —
(1) Indigo, (2) Madder, (3) Lichens, (4) Safflower, (5)
Aloe, (6) Peach and Lima woods, (7) BraziHan red
woods, (8) Panama vine, (9) Persian berries, (10) Quer-
citron bark.
Logwood is procured from a tree indigenous to South
Africa, and is extensively used in dyeing blacks.
I04 HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
Animal dyes may also be classed as natural ones, but
they are very few in number. Cochineal, obtained from
a small insect found in Turkey, Morocco, Spain and S.
France, is the most important red colouring matter for
animal fibres, and Lac, an insect of India, China and the
Eastern Archipelago, produces dull reds.
Since the discovery of coal-tar colours, the industry
of artificial dyeing has rapidly increased, due no doubt to
the progress of inorganic chemistry, and these dyes can
only be understood and classified from a chemical point
of view. The first of these dyes was introduced in 1856 ;
the number now in use is considerable, and increasing
daily. Aniline dyes are conspicuous for their intensity
of colour ; for example, 1 grain dissolved in 1500 gallons
of water is capable in twenty-four hours of dyeing silk
thread thoroughly immersed in it. But the great draw-
back to them is their fugitive nature, the colour very
rapidly disappearing in a strong light. Ahzarine, the dye
used for Turkey red, was formerly obtained from the root
of the madder plant, but now it is almost exclusively
derived from coal tar.
Germany is the headquarters of the coal-tar industry,
France follows next, and the produce in Great Britain is
calculated as one-third less.
Widths of Textile Fabrics.— Knowledge of the
various widths of different materials is important, in
order to estimate correctly the amount required for
different garments. There are three distinct normal
widths, known as single (thirty inches), double (forty-
five inches), and mantle (fifty-four inches). Silks and
velvets are very narrow, and fall considerably below the
average single width. Many kinds of woollen goods are
manufactured in both single and double widths, and
DYEING, WIDTHS, ETC., OF MATERIALS. 105
some materials, such as tweeds and serges, may almost
be procured at any width desired. The accompanying
table gives the inches of the average widths of the prin-
cipal classes of dress goods : —
Single. Double. Mantle.
Silks, velvets, poplins, etc. . . 18-24 — —
Velveteens 27 — —
Serge 27-36 42-48 50-54
Cashmere and French merino . . — 45 —
Cloths — — 52-56
Tweeds, homespuns .... 30-36 — 62-66
Beige 24-30 40-44 —
Flannel — — —
Grenadines, gauzes, canvas, etc. . 24-30 40-45 —
Calico 28-36 — —
Prints, ginghams, sateens . . 30-32 — —
Muslins 30-36 — —
Linen — 36-42 —
Bodice lining — 34-38 —
Skirt linings 27-30 36-45 —
Waterproofing for tourists' skirts . — — 60-62
Silk. — Silk may be had in endless varieties, and may
be twilled, plain, corded, soft, thick, watered, etc. The
ordinary plain dress silks are reversible, lustrous and
firm. The common method of testing the quality of
silks by weight cannot be relied upon, as unfortunately
many chemicals are often employed in dyeing to make
it heavier. One cwt. of raw silk has been known
to increase to four during dyeing, tannin, sugar and
perchloride of tin being much used for this purpose.
In choosing silk, the quality of fibre and not weight is
the test ; inferior silks are also mixed freely with cotton,
and this may be easily detected by slightly fraying out
the edges. Besides the ordinary plain silks of commerce,
the following special makes are in much demand : —
io6 HOUSEHOLD SEWING,
1. Surah. — A thin twilled silk, soft, and with a glossy
surface, much used for sashes, draperies and facings.
2. Corded Silks. — These are manufactured with a
rounded cord running straight across from selvedge to
selvedge. A strong but dull make is known as gros
graiu^ and a similar but somewhat softer kind as faille
franjaise. Irish popHns and bengalines belong to this
class of goods, the latter having a little finer cord than
the former, but they are not pure silk fabrics, the weft
threads being made of fine worsted yarn. Ottoman silk
is a very thick silk used chiefly for mantles ; it has one
very thick cord alternately with one or two thin ones.
3. Satins. — Satins are silks with a highly glossed sur-
face on one side, caused by a distinct process in weaving,
based on the ancient satin stitch of antique embroidery.
A large proportion of the weft threads are brought to the
surface after the principle of a twilled darn, one thread
being taken up and four, six or even eight passed over.
The wrong side is like plain weaving, and is smooth and
dull ; in inferior makes cotton is substituted for this part.
Peau de soie is a plain silk with a dull satin finish. Satin
merveilleux is a twilled satin-finished silk, somewhat re-
sembling surah, but more expensive, thicker and more
durable; it is used for complete dresses as well as
for trimmings.
4. Watered and Hoir6 Silks. — These silks are sub-
jected to processes of moisture, heat and pressure for
the purpose of effecting a patterned fabric suggestive in
design of marble or running water and, at the same time,
enhancing the brilliancy of the silk. Gros grain is the
principal kind of silk used for this purpose, but satin and
faille fran9aise are also utihsed. Watered silk has a
bold and large pattern suggestive of smeared water, while
DYEING, WIDTHS, ETC., OF MATERIALS. 107
moir6 is much finer, as though to represent a trickle or
drip of running water.
5. Washing and Soft Silks. — The enormous de-
velopment of late years in these silks almost marks a new
era in the silk manufacture. They are most extensively
used for blouses, children's frocks, draperies, etc., and
since the recent discoveries in the art of dyeing they are
to be procured in beautiful artistic colours. Pongee or
Asiatic silk, so named from its original source, is a very
thin, plain silk with a glossy finish, alike on both sides,
and with a somewhat streaked, irregular surface. China
silks, although very like Pong6es, are much closer, firmer,
softer and smoother. Tussore silk is a species of Indian
raw silk of a whitish-brown colour, which, in spite of being
finely and closely woven (thus very difficult to sew), feels
harsh and coarse to the touch. It is extensively em-
broidered in elaborate designs and colours by the natives,
and is much prized by Europeans. Foulard is a soft,
twilled, washing silk, generally with a printed design in
self or contrasting colours.
6. Brocades. — Brocades are silks with floral or geo-
metrical designs usually raised on a groundwork of satin,
representing a sort of damask satin. Broch^ is the
name given to the inferior brocades with the embossed
pattern on the right side only, and not woven in the
material as is the case in the former. Both kinds are
extensively used for trimmings and mantles, as well as
for complete dresses.
7. Crape. — Crape is a very thin silk fabric made of
spun fibres tightly twisted and retaining the natural gum
of the silkworm ; it is woven hke a thin muslin, and
then boiled to extract the gum. The heat and moisture
cause the fibres partially to untwist, and this gives a
io8 HOUSEHOLD SEWING,
waved and rough appearance to the fabric. Europeans
will not divulge the secret of crape finishing by which
the crisp, uneven surface is brought to such perfection ;
but in Japan the material after weaving is dipped in cold
water, then alternately in hot and cold water in rapid
succession, and finally rolled and dried. Crape which has
lost its crispness may be renovated by simply rolling it
round a stick, bottle, or roller of some sort, and holding
it over a kettle or saucepan of boiling water until it is
saturated with steam, then, after leaving it to dry,
removing it from the roller. Crape when dyed black is
used for mourning apparel; coloured crapes are em-
ployed chiefly for trimmings.
Pile Fabrics. — These comprise velvets and plushes
in silk, and velveteen, plushes, fustians and corduroys in
cotton. They are rich, thick fabrics with a soft raised
pile caused by additional threads being drawn over a
needle, and the loops afterwards cut, teazled and singed
on hot iron cylinders. According to the variety of the
fabric the face is cropped before or after dyeing. Plushes
have a very much longer pile than velvets ; both when
made entirely of silk have a stiff and crisp back. Cotton-
backed velvets, known as patent velvets, have a silk pile
raised on a cotton foundation ; shot velvets have a
foundation of one colour and a pile of a contrasting one.
Velveteens are an imitation of velvet made entirely of
cotton ; they are much softer and heavier, and lack the
crispness of silk, but they do not spoil or mark so quickly
with rain. They are made a few inches wider than
velvet, and are much cheaper. Fustians and corduroys
are names given to heavy cotton pile fabrics used chiefly
for men's clothing, and made almost exactly like velvet,
but the loops in corduroys are left uncut. All pile
DYEING, WIDTHS, ETC., OF MATERIALS. 109
fabrics require great care in making, as they shade
differently according to the direction of the warp threads,
and if they are placed upside down the result will be
a rubbed, light, whitish appearance. The pile should
stroke up smoothly under the hand ; in closely-cut piles
this way is sometimes difficult to discover, but if the
fabric is held up to the light it will shade darkly or
lightly, according as it is turned up or down. The gar-
ment must be made so that the pile shades darkly to
the observer, and to the wearer looking down it will
appear light ; also when brushed, it must be done up-
wards, along with and not against the pile. Velvets
and velveteens very quickly mark and rub under the
hand, consequently they require special care in holding :
thus it is wiser to hold such fabrics with another piece
of itself, so that the two piles coming in contact will
interlock and support one another, and prevent them
being flattened or rubbed in the wrong direction. In
ironing, the back only can be brought in contact with
the iron, and this should be held in mid-air and not
placed on an ironing table, or the pile will be spoiled.
Bodice seams require firm and flat pressing, so they
must be excepted from this general rule, and ironed over
a roller covered with a piece of similar material. Sur-
face dust may be removed with a small bundle of old
crape, or with soft hat brushes.
Woollens. — Woollen materials are the most popular
of all dress fabrics on account of their healthiness,
durability and price, combined with a good appear-
ance. Endless varieties of designs and weaving are
manufactured, every season bringing out some new de-
velopment. Much of their durabiUty depends upon the
original quality of the wool and the nature of the dye.
no HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
but as a general rule it will be found that twilled
materials are the best for wear, with the exception
perhaps of homespun cloths made of stout, undyed,
worsted yarn. Many woollen fabrics are reversible, and
many others are so nearly alike on both sides that it is
difficult to determine a difference ; the surface with the
most wool or nap may generally be distinguished by allow-
ing a strong light to fall upon it, and this is the right
side ; twilled fabrics are most usually manufactured with
the twill on the right side running up to the left shoulder
when placed against the figure. Foul6 is a term applied
to woollen goods after they have been subjected to
certain finishing processes. Woollen yarns are more
capable of undergoing these processes because the felting
nature of wool, caused by its numerous serrations, has
been allowed to take its natural bent, and not drawn
and flattened as in the case of worsted yarns. This
foul6 process, technically known as milling or fulling,
increases the textile in thickness, but considerably
decreases it in width and length. In order to pro-
duce this change the fabric is thoroughly saturated
with soapy water, then twisted and wrung between two
upright rollers, thereby causing the weft threads to
shrink ; and in order to shrink the warp threads it is
further compressed for a certain length of time in a kind
of box machine. Milling, in short, is merely a method
of shrinking in order to blend, and so render practically
invisible, the warp and weft threads ; it also softens the
fabrics, but the colour and brightness is apt to suffer
during the process. After fulHng, further finishing pro-
cesses have to be gone through : first, raising, by which
the nap or surface is raised by machinery somewhat like
cylindrical combs; next they pass through the boiling
DYEING, WIDTHS, ETC., OF MATERIALS. iii
or crabbing stage for the purpose of imparting permanent
lustre, which is done by winding the fabric on large
rollers, and boiHng it for several hours. Finally, its
solidity, softness and lustre are improved by good press-
ing, and then it is ready for use.
The principal kinds of woollen goods are : —
1. Serge. — Serges are the most popular of all woollen
goods, and they are capable of resisting very hard wear.
The fabric is a twilled worsted one, very springy and
harsh to the touch, and manufactured in almost every
width, quality and thickness. The twills also vary very
much in size ; for instance, Indian serge has a very fine
twill and is a soft make ; estamen^ is coarser, as well as
harsh and springy ; foul6 serges, again, are fine and soft,
and have been subjected to partial milling, while Cheviot
or diagonal serges have a very coarse twill and are loosely
woven. Sea water is introduced in dyeing some navy
serges, so as to render them capable of resisting the
action of salt water. Those dyed with indigo dye will be
found the most serviceable both in wear and in steadfast-
ness of colour.
2. Cashmere and French Herino. — These are soft,
twilled worsted fabrics made from the wool of the
merino sheep and Thibet goat. In cashmere the twill is
very fine, irregular, broken, and only on the right side,
the back or wrong side being plain and smooth, with a
slight cord running across it. French merino is a very
similar material, but slightly heavier and twilled on both
sides. They are both capable of dyeing any colour or
shade, and their width is almost invariably forty-five
inches. Indian cashmere is a slightly thicker make,
twilled on both sides, and with a woolly surface.
3. Hphair* — Under this name may be classed all the
112 HOUSEHOLD SEWING,
various lustrous goods made primarily of the hair of
various sheep and goats, such as the Peruvian, Angora,
Alpaca and Llama. These hairs are freely mixed with
silk, wool and cotton in manufacturing various kinds of
dress fabrics, the general names for them being alpaca
and lustre.
4. Cloths. — Heavily milled woollen fabrics with soft
glazed surface are known by the name of cloth ; they are
very close fabrics owing to additional heavy pressure
after milling, and very durable, but unfortunately they
lend themselves very easily to cheap imitations. The
principal kinds of cloths are : (1) Melton, (2) Habit, (3)
Covert, (4) Amazon and Vicuna. Melton is a firm,
closely-woven cloth, used chiefly for tailor-made dresses.
Habit cloth is much softer, and finished with a bright
glossy nap. Covert coatings are thin summer cloths
made of natural undyed wool, resulting in fabrics of
grey, drab and fawn colours. Amazon is a very favourite
dress cloth, somewhat harder and duller than habit, and
vicuna closely resembles it, but is more elastic ; this
latter was originally made of the fine, soft, vicuna hair.
Mungo and shoddy are cloths remanufactured from
cuttings and rags, the former being made from the hard,
well-milled pieces, and the latter out of soft and lightly-
spun materials. Owing to the grinding-down and re-
manufacturing, they lose much of their elasticity and
strength. They are frequently mixed with inferior wools
and cotton for the formation of still cheaper cloths.
5. Tweeds and Homespuns. — Both these fabrics are
made of rough undyed yarn, the latter being originally
the name given to fabrics spun at home. Tweeds are
generally harder, closer and better finished than home-
spuns; both are manufactured in plain and twilled
DYEING, WIDTHS, ETC. OF MATERIALS, 113
weaves, and frequently bright-coloured wools or silks
are interwoven. The yarn is spun without any regard
to the colour, quality, or texture of the wool, conse-
quently it produces a textile of very mingled and rough
appearance.
Beige is the name given to a very fine material made of
natural undyed yams ; it is thin, with a smooth surface,
and may be either twilled or plain.
6. Linsey and Wincey, — These materials have almost
been superseded by serges. Linsey is a very hard, dura-
ble material, made of inferior wool and flax. Wincey is
the Scotch substitute, being made of wool and cotton
instead of flax. Modern manufacturers have introduced
some very fine makes, which may be safely utilised in
place of serges.
7. Nuns' Veiling. — This is a light, thin, open woollen
material with a rough finish, which gives it somewhat a
harsh feeling. It is chiefly used for children's summer
and evening dresses. With care it will wash well, and
for so thin a fabric is very durable. Cr^pon is a material
of much the same texture, which has been treated some-
what like crape to give it a crumpled appearance.
8. Grenadine, Gauze, CauYas, Net. — These are thin,
open materials, sometimes manufactured in meshes or
checks. They are made of silk or wool, and frequently
of silk and wool combined. In canvas the threads simply
pass over one another, and can be easily displaced if
desired ; in nets the meshes are knotted, while gauzes have
the threads much twisted. Grenadines often have a
groundwork of gauze with a thick pattern woven upon it.
Flannels. — Flannel is the name given to a loosely-
woven, woollen fabric, manufactured very much in the
same way as cloth ; it has a rough, slightly-raised pile
8
114 HOUSEHOLD SEWING,
or nap running from right to left, and the yarn is very
loosely spun to impart softness. The chief makes of
flannel are Welsh, Saxony, Yorkshire and sanitary or
natural wool. Welsh flannels are of a bluish tinge,
rather coarse, and with a thick grey selvedge called list ;
originally they were made of the wool of the Welsh
mountain sheep, but the amount of wool thus procured
is hardly sufficient for the quantity of Welsh flannel now
used. The manufacture is conducted principally at New-
town, Welshpool and Llangollen. Saxony is a very soft,
cream-coloured flannel, with a pink selvedge, and is
generally used for baby-clothing. Yorkshire flannel is
cheaper, with very distinct threads; it is also cream-
coloured, but has a very narrow bluish-grey selvedge.
Sanitary flannel is of a greyish-brown colour, and is
made from a specially-prepared hygienic wool, which
preserves the natural properties of the wool and makes it
warmer and healthier.
Several special kinds of flannels are manufactured,
such as cricketing flannels, which are close and firmly
spun ; striped shirt flannels, thin gauze flannels for Indian
wear, French twilled flannels for dressing gowns and
children's clothes, etc.
Cottons. — The merit of cotton materials lies in their
durability and their suitability for washing. They are
also very inexpensive, and although not quite so durable
as linen are much lighter to wear and easier to wash.
The principal cotton fabrics are : —
1. Calioo. — CaUco derives its name from Calicut, a
town in the Malabar district of India. Formerly the
name was used universally for cotton fabrics with printed
designs ; now it is exclusively used for a white fabric,
known also as longcloth. This may be bleached, in which
DYEING, WIDTHS, ETC., OF MATERIALS. 115
case it is put through various processes to thoroughly
whiten it, or unbleached, when it presents a whitish-
brown tint. Chloride of lime is the principal bleaching
agent used, and although vastly improving the appearance
of calico it is apt to decrease, its strength and durability.
Calico is used principally for undergarments, and is the
best of all washing fabrics.
2. Print. — This is the name now commonly given to
calico when printed in various designs and colours. The
chief seats of calico printing in Great Britain are to be
found in Manchester and Glasgow, where there are very
large factories. Cahco printing at the present day pro-
duces beautiful artistic results, which not only require
chemical and mechanical skill, but thorough knowledge
in the science and art of design. Print is used chiefly
for dresses and aprons ; it is very durable, and, if
printed with fast colours, will wash well.
3. Gingham and Zephyr. — These are fabrics made of
yarn dyed before weaving. Gingham is close and firm,
with the warp and weft threads of even thickness, con-
sequently, when made in checks and plaids, the squares
are regular. Zephyr is much finer, with a thinner weft
thread, thus the squares in plaids and checks are never
quite even.
4. Sateen. — Sateen is an imitation in cotton of satin ;
it is soft and yielding, and made of yarn dyed before
weaving. Sometimes it is printed like print, but it may
be easily distinguished from that fabric, as the ground is
dyed through and the colour not just laid on the surface.
Plain sateens are much used as linings for thin woollen
and silk material^ and the better makes for dresses and
aprons.
5. Huslin. — MusUn is the finest cotton material, and
ii6 HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
is made in many varieties. The principal kinds are
Swiss, Mull, Indian, Madras, Book, Victoria Lawn,
Leno and Spotted. Indian and Mull are the finest and
softest makes, the former having a special silky appear-
ance ; Swiss muslin is somewhat thicker, stiffer and
much more transparent, while Madras has a coarse,
transparent ground with a heavily raised pattern worked
upon it in very soft, thick thread. Book muslin is like
an inferior Swiss ; Victoria Lawn and Leno are stiff
muslins used to line trimmings and dress finishings, and
spotted muslin is a sort of book muslin with raised spots
worked on it. White muslins are the most common, but
they may be also had in various colours and shades. Art
muslin is a thin, coarse, Indian muslin printed in elabo-
rate designs, but it is seldom used as a dress material.
6. Piqa6 and Dimity. — Pique is a very strong, white,
cotton fabric with a cord running across from selvedge to
selvedge ; it is very stiff and used principally for children's
pelisses. Dimity is a similar material but much softer,
and it is also woven into diamonds and other patterns.
7. Drill and Jean. — Drill is a very hard, dull, thick,
cotton fabric, and jean is the sateen counterpart ; both
are twilled and used chiefly for sailor blouses and ladies'
dresses.
8. YelYeteens, Crapes. — See silks.
9. Polonaise. — A strong soft lining made of silk and
cotton, used principally for silk dresses.
10. Silesia and Linenette. — These are the two popu-
lar dress linings; the former may be either twilled or
plain, with a figured or striped pattern on one side and a
plain white, grey, or black back : it is used chiefly for
bodices. Linenette is a plain, highly-glazed self-coloured
lining, obtainable in almost every shade, and used princi-
DYEING, WIDTHS, ETC, OF MATERIALS, 117
pally for skirts. Oxford lining is like a thick, stiff grey
gingham, very heavy and difficult to make up, as it does
not retain the wheel marks; its chief merits are its
cheapness and strength. Silesias are also made in plain
self-colours, the old-fashioned plain slate-grey being still
a favourite lining.
11. Galatea. — An imitation of linen woven generally
in blue and white stripes, sometimes also with a little
red introduced. It is very strong and most suitable for
dresses required for hard wear.
12. Flannelette. — A soft, woolly material manufac-
tured to imitate flannel. It has a soft, downy surface,
and on account of its warmth, is now becoming very
general for underwear.
Linen. — Dress fabrics made of linen are not very
numerous, this trade being now chiefly supported for
ecclesiastical and household purposes, with the exception
of such articles as shirts, collars and cuffs, laces and
handkerchiefs. Besides the ordinary plain linen which
is sometimes used in the place of calico, the principal
makes are : —
1. Cambrio. — This is a general name applied to thin
linen, said to be derivedirom the French town of Cambrai,
where it was first manufactured. Switzerland and Ire-
land now produce some of the finest makes, and it is this
fabric which is generally used for pocket handkerchiefs.
Scotch cambric is a good imitation made of cotton, with
the fibre very much twisted to make it appear like linen.
2. Lawn. — The very finest linen mushn is known by
this name, and on account of its expensive nature is rarely
used as a dress fabric, but it can be very successfully
imitated in cotton. It obtained its name from the fact
that the very fine flax was originally spread out on the
ii8 HOUSEHOLD SEWING,
better grass fields or lawns in order to bleach it, exposure
to air being necessary in the earliest bleaching processes.
3. Holland. — It was formerly the custom to send
unbleached linen from Scotland to Holland to be bleached,
and this latter name is still kept for a kind of coarse,
unbleached linen. It is the favourite linen dress fabric,
as it is cool and durable ; coloured Hollands are now
being extensively manufactured, but originally they were
of a dull, whitish-brown or yellow tinge.
iig
CHAPTEE VIIL
DRESSMAKING.
Bodices.
The scientific knowledge of dressmaking materially assists
the practical work, and scientific systems of drafting the
various parts of a dress act as good foundations to the
different phases of fashion and the peculiarities of figures.
But systems, however good their principles and propor-
tions, require to be treated only as groundworks, and
must be accompanied by a thorough practical knowledge
of the details of making, such as cutting out, fitting,
pressing, finishing, etc. A few primary points are
essential to good dressmaking ; such are : —
1. Accuracy in the smallest details.
2. Careful handling of the various parts, so as not to
stretch them out of shape.
3. Good and plentiful tacking, and removal of the
same without straining.
4. Neat sewing, coupled with firm, regular and toler-
ably large stitches.
If these details are not carefully observed during the
process of making, it is probable that the final results
will not be of the most satisfactory nature. With be-
ginners especially, stretching various parts of the bodice
whilst sewing is a very common fault, and when once
I20 HOUSEHOLD SEWING,
this is done it is very difficult, nay, in many cases almost
impossible, to effect a remedy.
Cutting out. — Almost every system of drafting has
its own special rules for cutting out, and will probably
require any general principles to be adapted to its special
needs. The quantity of Silesia lining required for a
plain average sized bodice is two yards, and for a skirt
four yards of double-width linenette. The dressmaker's
method is always to cut out the bodice lining first, be-
cause the material may have to be arranged in some
fancy manner according to the nature of the design ;
tailors, on the other hand, cut out the material first,
partly because they use much thicker and firmer fabrics,
and also because they usually make plain tight-fitting
bodices. No definite rule can be given as to whether
the skirt or the bodice material should be cut out first,
as this depends entirely on the style and quantity pro-
vided. The wisest plan is to mark out on the material
the various parts of the dress with tailor's chalk before
cutting, so as to ensure an even distribution between the
bodice, sleeves and skirfc.
One of the most economical ways of placing a bodice
pattern on the doubled lining is as follows : —
(a) Fronts. — Bottom of the basque to end of the
lining and the fitting line (centre front) to-
wards the selvedge.
(h) Middle-back. — Centre seam towards the fold
of the lining on the portion left from the fronts
(with large patterns the shoulders will require
to be placed a little above the fronts).
(c) Side-backs. — Armhole placed in the small por-
tion left from the front neck curve.
(d) Under-arms. — At the side of the side-back piece.
DRESSMAKING. izi
ifote. — Most ayatema require the waiat linea of both
side -pieces placed at right
angles to the aelvedge, ie., lying
along the weft threads.
(e) Sleeves. — Lengthwiae
on the remaiaing lining.
Usually the top and bot-
tom of the inner seam are
in the same straight line,
and therefore are placed
equally dietant from the
selvedge.
Fascy Matekials.
A few special points must be
noted in cutting out fancy ma-
teriala.
1. Each piece requires to be
cut separately, and not on the
doubled material, as these fab-
rica are seldom folded quite
evenly.
2. Figured and aatin-faced
materials must be made with
the material falling all the same
way,
3. Pile fabrics, when held
next the wearer, must appear
to ahade darkly.
4. Plaids and checks must
correspond both width wise and
lengthwise in every piece as
follows : —
122 HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
(a) Waist lines.
(b) Top of the middle and side -back seam.
(c) Top of the side-back and under-arm seam.
(d) Under-arm and front seam.
5. Stripes may be cut entirely on the cross with the
Hnes made to fit into one another, or on the straight,
when they are treated lengthwise as plaids.
Turnings. — The patterns are pinned to the material,
the edges, waist lines and darts traced with a wheel, and
the turnings marked in the same way as for under gar-
ments (page 37) ; but the amount left for turnings varies
in different places, and the nature of the material must
be taken into account, as firm and closely woven ones
require less because they are not Hkely to fray.
Turnings for all parts of the armholes should not
exceed half an inch ; if more is left the latter become
narrowed, and will not allow the dress to be put properly
on for fitting. On the other hand, those for the under-
arm and shoulder seams should be quite dhe inch deep,
because if alterations are needed they are usually made
in these seams.
The depth of turnings for the centre-back seam is a
matter of taste, many people preferring it fairly wide, in
order to fill up the natural hollow of the figure between
the shoulder blades. A wide margin in the front hem is
also advisable, two inches being a very favourite amount ;
half to three quarters of an inch for all other seams is a
general average.
Tacking. — This divides itself into two classes: (1)
the tacking out, (2) the tacking together. The import-
ance of both is considerable, and if carelessly done will
give endless trouble in fitting. The stitches for the first,
which is merely the tacking of the lining and material
DRESSMAKING, 123
together, may be fairly large. Those for the second are
required to hold the various pieces together for fitting,
and must therefore be firm and close.
The following are a few elementary rules for tacking
bodices : —
1. Stretch the material on to the lining and pin them
well together.
2. Tack the waist lines.
3. Tack the lining to material over the wheel marks.
4. Pin and tack the bodice together (beginning at the
waist lines, which must meet together exactly) in the
following order : —
(a) Darts.
{b) Side-backs to centre-backs, keeping the former
piece uppermost while sewing, so as to fit in
the curves easily.
(c) Under arm-pieces to side-backs.
(d) Centre-backs.
(e) Under-arms to front.
(/) Shoulders, taking care to slightly ease in the
back, so as to make the neck and armhole
lines meet.
(g) Sleeves, beginning with the inner seam and
making the two pieces meet at the elbow
bend.
The stretching of the material on to the lining is
an important point, and one which can be improved as
the worker becomes better acquainted with the natural
curves of the figure. The most stretching is required
where depressions occur in the figure, and as far as
possible it should be done lengthwise ; it gives the appear-
ance on the wrong side of the lining being puckered, and
this is very necessary for the hollow parts of a figure. It
124 HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
also removes any chance of the material stretching and
becoming full on the surface during wear. The most
important places are above and below all parts of the
waist, and the front neck and shoulders ; in all parts the
amount of stretching must be regulated according to the
nature of the material, some naturally requiring more
than others. The back shoulder is generally cut slightly
longer than the front in order to prevent puckers round
the front neck ; it is better not to stretch the front
shoulder on to the back, but to ease in the latter, and
allow the front to stretch itself naturally on the figure.
The rounding, stretching and shrinking various parts so
as to exactly fit the crevices of the body are seldom needed
for any but thick tailor-made garments. If desired, any
great depressions may be fitted with wadding, which is
usually placed between the lining and material.
Fitting. — Through the development of many good
systems of measuring and drafting, the difficulties of
fitting have been considerably lessened. Still, compara-
tively few normal figures are to be found, so that a cer-
tain amount of fitting will always be indispensable, but
the fault of overfitting is not in the least uncommon. In
order to prevent this, the whole fit of the garment ought
to be carefully noted before making any alteration, and
due allowance made for the tightening of the seams when
firmly sewn. Overfitting is frequently caused by altering
one part and thereby causing a misfit to another, thus
necessitating further alterations, and this may be carried
to such an extent as to positively change the entire cut
and fit of the bodice. Therefore, in making any altera-
tion, however correct in itself, care must be taken to see
that it is not throwing some other part wrong ; for example,
putting the waist line in the wrong position by taking up
DRESSMAKING. 125
the shoulders, or, enlarging or lowering the. neck too
much by letting down the shoulders. Frequent fittings
are not desirable, because the unfinished portions of the
bodice are apt to stretch out of shape; with a good
system of drafting one fitting ought to be sufficient, and
more than two should never be permitted. This necessi-
tates all parts of the bodice being ready at once, and
after the requisite alterations are made, the positions for
the collar and sleeves marked with pins or chalk. Two
systems of fitting are common — one is to do as much as
possible from the front fitting line, and on no account to
alter the shoulders ; the other is to avoid altering the
fitting line and to make necessary alterations at the
shoulder. Both plans have their good points, but the
first is undoubtedly the more difficult, because unless
great care is taken, it is apt to throw other parts, such
as the darts, out of their right position. A normal figure
should require a straight fitting line, the appearance of a
curve being due to the suppression at the waist by the
darts ; for stripes and plaids this is particularly essential.
Many abnormal figures, however, require a small amount
taken in towards the neck, and others again require the
bodice rounded over the fullest part of the bust.
Many dressmakers advocate fitting-on with the right
side of the bodice uppermost on the figure ; for two
reasons, this is not a good method. First, the person
fitted may not be equally developed, one side being larger
than the other, and then when the bodice is worn on the
right side, the smaller portion will be to the most de-
veloped part. Secondly, the seams take up a certain
amount of room, and if these are left outside while fitting,
the bodice is frequently made too tight. The boning also
takes up a certain amount, but this is usually counter-
126 HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
balanced by the necessary paring and pressing of the
seams. For beginners it is wiser to mark all alterations
with pins, and to fit both sides, so as not to alter one
side too much to the detriment of the other. For more
experienced workers a quicker method and one less likely
to strain the bodice is to mark the faults with chalk, and
if the person is equally developed only one half need be
marked on the figure ; but this method should only be
adopted by dressmakers with quick and well-trained sight,
or misfits are likely to result. Besides the altering of
seams, fitting includes the removal of fulness and creases
which frequently occur in various parts of the garment.
The following general rules, separated into three divisions
— (1) fitting, (2) alterations, (3) removal of fulness and
creases — will show how to rectify the commonest faults
occurring in dress bodices.
1. Fitting.
1. To ensure good fitting, correct cutting and firm,
correct tacking are absolutely necessary.
2. Dispense, if possible, with more than one fitting.
3. Have all parts of the dress ready and tacked, viz. :
(a) bodice, (b) sleeves, (c) collar, (d) skirts. {Note, —
If desired a few back seams may be machined before
fitting.)
4. Fit the skirt and arrange : —
(a) Darts and waist band.
(6) Length of front, hips and back.
5. Place the bodice on the figure as follows : —
(a) Eight side outside.
(b) Pull well down at the back waist and pin to
the figure.
DRESSMAKING. 127
(c) Pin the front fitting-lines together, beginning
at the waist.
{d) Draw the fronts up very slightly over the
bust.
6. Previous to altering any one part examine well the
whole fit of the garment.
7. Avoid overfitting and, if possible, altering the
fitting-lines and darts.
8. Make any necessary alterations and remove the
creases according to the given rales.
9. Fit the sleeve and mark the positions for the inner
and outer seams and the top of the sleeve, on the bodice.
10. Note if the neck tacking and collar agree — if not,
mark alterations.
11. When fitted, all alterations must be marked at
once with tackings.
2. Alterations.
1. Front bust or waist (width).
(a) If too large or too small, take in or let out the
under-arm seam ; or
(b) Slightly round the fitting-line over the bust.
2. Back bust or waist (width).
If too large or too small, take in or let out the
under-arm and side-back seam.
3. Waist (length).
(a) If too long or too short -waisted in the back or
front, take in or let out the back or front
shoulder respectively ; or
(b) Alter the waist line to its right position by
taking in or letting out each seam at the
waist.
128 HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
4. Chest (width).
If too wide or too narrow, alter at the shoulder
and under-arm seams ; it may also require
the armhole hollowing out. If still incorrect,
alter at the fitting- lines.
5. Back (width).
If too wide, take in the side-back and middle-
back seam, and hollow out at the armhole.
If too narrow, let out the middle-back seam.
6. Neck (width).
If too large or too small, take in or let out at
the shoulders. For round-shouldered and
narrow-chested figures, the front fitting-line
may be taken in from a quarter to half an
inch, and the middle-back seam from one-
eighth to one-quarter inch.
Neck (height).
If too low, raise at the shoulders and alter the
position of the waist.
If too high, cut away the material to the
required place, and narrow it according to
the given rules.
7. Sleeves (width).
If too large or too small, take in or let out the
outer seam if possible, but occasionally the
inner seam also requires altering.
Sleeves (length).
If too long above the elbow, take away the
amount at the armhole; if too long below,
shorten at the wrist.
If too short above the elbow, join extra mate-
rial to the under-arm piece ; if too short below
the elbow, join a piece on to the wrist and
cover it with a cuff or trimming.
DRESSMAKING. 129
8. Basque.
This is chiefly altered at the under-arm seam, but
may require each seam taking in or letting out.
Note, — Avoid all alterations which will make the
under-arm piece smaller than the side-back.
3. Fulness and Gbeases.
1. Fulness fSpom top of the second dart to the
armhole.
Make the darts smaller and draw out the
superfluous material at the under-arm seam.
2. Fulness at the fall of arm In front.
(a) Draw out the fulness at the shoulder and
under-arm seam ; or
(b) Make a small dart in the lining from the arm-
hole, and stretch out or shrink away the
material above; or
(c) Add wadding to fill up the fulness.
3. Fulness*at the collar bone.
(a) Stretch out the material to the neck and arm-
hole, leaving the lining loose underneath to
fill up the depressions of the figure ; or
(b) Take in the neck at the shoulders or fitting-
lines; or
(c) Enlarge the collar, and see that its curve suits
the figure ; or
(d) Shrink away the fulness.
4. Fulness across the flttlng-llne at the bust.
(a) Make a small dart in the lining, and stretch
or shrink away the material ; or
(b) Draw the edges in with overcasting and shrink.
5. Fulness at the top of the darts.
(a) Slant the darts more gradually off at the top,
and make them slightly longer ; or
9
I30 HOUSEHOLD SEWING,
(b) Draw away the fulness to the under-arm
seam; or
(c) Make the darts smaller and draw away the
material to the under-arm seam.
6. Diagonal oreases from the front shoulder and
neck to the armhole.
(a) Take in the shoulder at the armhole and let it
out at the neck ; or
(b) Let out the front shoulder.
7. Creases across the waist from the under-arm
seam to the second dart.
(a) Open the under-arm seam, stretch the hodice
well down till the creases disappear, and pin
it together again on the figure ; or
(b) Place a small dart in the lining, and stretch
the material over it.
8. Creases across the back waist.
(a) Take in the seams of the waist and let them
out in the basque ; or
(b) Eaise the shoulders.
9. Diagonal creases across the back basque.
Undo the seams and pin them together again
on the figure.
10. Creases across the upper sleeve from the inner
seam.
Give greater depth to the under part by adding
a wedge-shaped piece of material to it at the
outer seam, or by shortening the inner seam.
11. Creases across the upper sleeve at the elbow.
Give more curve to the sleeve by taking in the
outer and letting out the inner seams below
the elbow.
131
CHAPTER IX.
FINISHING.
Afteb fitting, the bodice is ready for stitching, and it
is in this part that the beauty of the lines may be made
or marred. All the seams should have the appearance
of being curved, especially well into the hollow of the
waist, but the curves must not be abrupt, but graceful
and gradual. All back seams should slope to the centre
of the back waist, and the front ones to the centre of the
front waist. The stitching may be done by hand or
machine ; if by the former, the threads must be drawn
sufficiently tight to prevent the join dividing on the right
side : for machined seams, the tension must be sufficiently
loose to allow for the thickness of the material, or it will
appear puckered, and the stitches crack and break in
wear.
The seams may be made neat in two ways : either by
overcasting, or by binding them with sarcenet ribbon or
galloon. The width of the seams when finished varies
in different parts of the bodice, according to the nature of
the figure. For angular figures it is important to leave
them fairly wide where depressions occur, as for instance,
dovm the centre of the back and the front shoulder ; they
thus act in the place of padding by filling up the hollows.
The under-arm seam is also usually left a little wider
than the others in case the bodice requires to be altered
132 HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
during wear, but with these exceptions a half-inch for
turnings may be considered an average width. Each
turning is laid open and notched across at the waist to
within an eighth of an inch of the seam ; curved seams
may also require one or two notches above, in order to
make them lie quite flat. The cotton for overcasting, or
the binding if used, should match the material in colour.
Ppesslng. — The importance of this branch of dress-
making work cannot be too particularly emphasised ; it
is in this that amateurs generally fail, and tailors score
over the average dressmaker. The tailor's goose or iron
is useful for long seams, but it is not necessary for ordinary
dressmaking, and most workers prefer a large flat iron.
Good heavy pressure in ironing is very essential, and for
thick materials this must be assisted by moisture. To
damp seams, dip the tips of the fingers in water and draw
them gently along the open seam ; on no account wet,
but merely damp, the seams, or the material will shrink
and pucker with the heat of the iron. Soap rubbed along
the seams will help to flatten them and also give a
certain amount of stifhess, but with some aniline dyes
the alkali of the soap fades the colour. Ironing, as far
as possible, is done on the wrong side ; should circum-
stances, however, necessitate it being done on the right
side, a piece of loose material similar to the dress is placed
over the part to be ironed. Where fulness has to be
removed, this piece of material is damped and a well-
heated iron applied, so as to shrink away the superfluous
material by the contact of heat and moisture. This pro-
cess will cause the surface of the garment to become glossy,
but the nap may again be raised by steam ; to do this,
lay a damp cloth over the glossed surface, and hold a
very hot iron as near to it as possible without actually
FINISHING. 133
touching it, and the steam thus produced will raise the
nap. If this should not prove thoroughly successful, rub
the glazed surface very gently with a damp cloth before
steaming. For pressing seams, the iron must not be
drawn along as in ordinary ironing, but lifted and laid
down over every portion, in order to prevent the seams
being stretched by the toe of the iron. The object of
pressing is to give a neat and smooth appearance through
flattening creases, seams, stitching, etc., by means of
weight, heat and moisture ; time spent over this part of
dressmaking will amply repay the worker.
Fastenings. — Standard dress fastenings are : —
1. Buttons and buttonholes.
2. Hooks and eyes.
3. Hooks and eyelet holes or loops.
4. Lacing.
5. Studs with eyelet holes or buttonholes.
Buttons and buttonholes are the commonest and
firmest method of fastening ; the buttonholes are placed
on the right-hand side of the bodice^ from half to one
inch apart, according to the size of the button. The
rounded and outside edge should come to the fitting-
line, the front hem being turned back one-eighth to
one-quarter of an inch beyond it. The front hems may
consist either of the bodice turned back and slip-hemmed,
or of a false hem laid on of silk; with thin materials
it is wiser to strengthen it by slipping in an interlining
of tailor's canvas. The buttons placed on the left-hand
side require a stand to lie under the buttonholes when
fastened ; this stand is usually left about one inch wide
beyond the fitting-line, and is hemmed or faced back to
match the buttonhole side. The first button and button-
hole should be placed on the waist line, and the distance
134 HOUSEHOLD SEWlNO.
apart measured from the same point. This is very
important, as it ensures the buttons and buttonholes
being exactly opposite ; if the contrary is allowed it causes
the bodice to twist crookedly when worn. The hems
ought to be well pressed before making the buttonholes
and sewing on the buttons.
For fastening with hooks and eyes, both sides of the
bodice are turned back about one-eighth of an inch
beyond the fitting-lines, the hooks and eyes stitched on
about three-quarters of an inch apart, beginning at the
waist, and then covered with a facing of silk or binding.
In sewing on the books and eyes care must be taken not
to let the stitches appear on the right side, and yet at
the same time to take them through the double thickness
of lining; if preferred, a hook and eye may be placed
alternately at each side of the bodice. A stand is made
on the left-hand side by sewing in a fold of material.
Fastenings with hooks and eyelet holes or loops require
the hooks to be put on the right-hand side in the same
manner; the left-hand side is prepared as for buttons,
and the eyelet holes or loops are placed on the fitting line
in their stead. Hooked fastenings of any kind are
usually only employed for trimmed bodices. Lacing is
used chiefly for evening bodices and Swiss belts: both
sides of the bqdice are prepared alike, the edges being
turned in one-quarter to three-eighths of an inch beyond
the fitting-line ; these margins are usually machined
down, and narrow bones slipped in to stiffen the edges.
Bows of eyelet holes are made on the fitting-lines about
one inch apart, beginning at the waist, and the bodice is
drawn together with a silk lace through these holes.
Studs with eyelet or buttonholes are now commonly
employed for imlined cotton blouses. The depth of the hem
FINISHING, 135
must be first decided, and the material turned back half
the depth of the hem beyond the fitting-line ; this, as in
the case of an under bodice, is to bring the fitting-line
exactly in the centre of the hem when finished. The
eyelet and buttonholes are placed on the fitting-lines,
the buttonhole on the right-hand side being placed longi-
tudinally along the warp threads, and those on the oppo-
site side horizontally across the weft threads in order to
hold the stud more securely. Two or three fastenings of
this kind down the centre of the hem are usually con-
sidered sufficient.
Boning. — Bones are used to prevent the bodice
stretching and to keep it a good shape; the bones
should be flexible and thin so as to yield well to the
figure, and although many substitutes exist, nothing has
yet been found quite equal to real whalebone. Sub-
stitutes are made from horn, quills, vegetable fibres,
steel, vulcanite, etc., but all of these more or less lack
the spring of real whalebone, and consequently break
more readily ; some feather boning perhaps may be
excepted, as it is very strong and durable, and also
has the advantage of being able to be machined into the
bodice, but it is somewhat thicker than whalebone, thus
adding something to the bulk of the dress. The best and
most correct way of boning is to sew in casings of bind-
ing or biassed cut linen to every seam. The height of
the bones should be on a level with the top of the darts
all the way round; occasionally those put in the side
back seam are carried up to the armhole, especially for
evening bodices, but for dresses in daily wear the bones,
if made too high, are apt to work through to the right
side. The bindings are sewn on to the turnings of the
seams only with running, hemming or herringboning ; at
136 HOUSEHOLD SEWINQ,
the top, a small loose pocket is made by doubling the
binding for about an inch and sewing the sides together.
The binding is eased on all the way down, and for about
one inch above and below the waist it should be distinctly
puckered, as here greater fulness is required. For short
basques, the binding is carried to within a quarter of
an inch of the edge ; this small amount is left to prevent
the bone working through at the bottom. Long basque
bodices do not need the bones taken all the way down,
but the length must be determined according to their
shape and style. The bones may be put into the casings
from the top or the bottom, according to individual taste,
but if from the top, the pocket must not be made till the
last; and for long basques where the boning is not
carried down to the bottom both ends may be finished
with a pocket. The easiest plan is to put the bone in
from the bottom, cutting them fully half an inch longer
than the required length and pushing them well up into
the fulled binding, so that the bodice may be well
stretched ; a hole must be pierced through the bone with
a stiletto or large pin at either end for fastening them in.
The top end is finished with a fan of stitches worked
through the hole over the pocket, the object of the pocket
being to prevent the end of the bone showing on the right
side, as it would do if sewn down to the seam all the way.
At the bottom the binding is tmned in and sewn with
the bone to the turnings of the seam.
Basques. — The basques are shaped in various styles
according to the prevailing fashions, but the edges are
nearly always turned up with a facing of silk, binding, or
material. Pointed basques appear to give length and to
decrease the width of a figure, provided the point is sharp
and not rounded, otherwise it will have a contrary effect.
FINISHING. 137
After the style of the basque has been marked with pins
or chalk, it is tacked back from the right side, and care
should be taken not to stretch the edge or to square it
at the seams ; the edge should present one unbroken line
when finished. After this the material may be cut away
to within a quarter to half an inch from the edge, and
faced with biassed material or binding; this facing is
henmied at each side without the stitches being taken
through to the right side. In order to see that both
sides are alike, measure down at intervals from the waist
line.
Collars. — Shaped collar stiffening, or buckram shaped
according to the system of drafting employed, forms the
foundation of a collar. This is covered with material cut
about a quarter of an inch larger all round, and with the
warp threads running straight down the centre of the
back ; this material is first tacked to the stiffening along
the centre, and then drawn together with long stitches
taken from edge to edge on the wrong side. Two or three
hooks and eyes are next placed at the ends for fastening,
and these must be put sufficiently far in to close the
collar when fastened, and not allow it to gape. It is
easier to sew the lining to the top and ends of the collar
before putting it on the dress, and this is done by turning
it in once and slip-stitching, or hemming it on about one-
eighth of an inch from the edge of the collar ; the hning at
the bottom is left loose to allow the dress to be put
inside. Before sewing on the collar, first pin and then
tack it in the proper position from the right side, taking
care to bring the ends only to the fitting-line at either
side, and no farther. The material beyond the fitting-
line on the buttonhole side is simply drawn together and
put into the edge of the collar ; that on the button side is
138 HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
left loose from the collar and the edge buttonholed or
bound over. The collar is sewn on from the wrong side,
and the material of the dress at the neck drawn well up
and the lining underneath eased dovm, so as to prevent a
full appearance on the right side. After sewing, the turn-
ings will require paring and notching, to prevent them
straining under the collar, and finally the collar lining is
hemmed down over the first stitching.
Sleeves. — Sleeves consist of two parts, known as the
upper and under pieces ; in coat sleeves the difference in
width between them is very sHght, but for dresses the
under piece is considerably smaller, partly because they
fit more closely to the arm, and also to make the under
seam less visible. The two parts are joined by two seams
known as the inner and the outer seams ; in joining
them it is very important that the under and upper
pieces should exactly meet one another at the armhole
and wrist, and any surplus material which usually appears
on the upper piece at the outside seam is gathered and
placed at the elbow to give greater freedom of movement.
When placed quite flat on a table, the inner seam of a
well-shaped sleeve will always lie evenly to the inside
edge, and not turn under or over towards the wrist.
Rules for placing sleeves into the bodice are numerous,
but owing to the number of abnormal arms they can very
seldom be followed. The inner seam should be placed
exactly where the arm separates from the body in front,
and one rule for determining this point is to measure along
the armhole from the shoulder towards the back one
inch ; from this place fold the armhole in two exactly,
and the bottom of the fold will give the right position.
Another rule is to place the outer seam in the centre of
the armhole of the side- back piece, and a third is to put
FINISHING. 139
the inner seam one inch above the bust line. Un-
doubtedly the most satisfactory plan is to mark the right
position while fitting, noting at the same time that the
inner seam points in a straight line from the armhole to
the thumb when the arm is held out as for measuring ;
if it twists above or below the thumb at the wrist, the
sleeve is either placed in a wrong position on the bodice,
or else it is badly shaped, and must be altered according
to the rules previously given.
Waistbands. — A waistband, made generally of belt-
ing, is sewn on to the three back seams at the waist,
with upright rows of cross-stitch to keep the bodice well
down on the figure.
Loops for hanging up are placed in the armholes or
collar.
140
CHAPTER X.
SKIRTS.
Skibts may be roughly divided into three classes: (1)
housemaids*, (2) lined or walking, (3) draped. All well-
iitting skirts should
(a) Hang evenly round the bottom ;
(b) Fall slightly out so as not to cling round the
feet;
(c) Have the seam appearing to fall in a straight
line from the waist downwards ;
(d) Fit at the hips without strain, and with suffi-
cient room for the figure to bend easily.
The processes of making naturally vary very much
with the fashions; the following is the most general
plan : —
1. Tacking-out and joining seams.
2. Overcasting and pressing.
3. Placket-hole.
4. Making and putting on waistband.
5. Bottom facing or hem.
6. Pocket, loops, braid, etc.
Before cutting out skirts, the principle and nature of
gores must be understood. A gore is a piece of material
having its width narrowed from the bottom to the top ;
strictly speaking, one side should be on the straight of
the material and one on the bias, but the idiosyncrasies
SKIRTS. 141
of fashion frequently cause this rule to be ignored.
Skirts are cut with one, two, or even three gores on each
side — the straight side of each width falls to the front,
and is thus brought next the slanting side of its neigh-
bour. If the back width of the skirt is also gored, two
slanting seams must fall together, and this is not advis-
able, as bias-cut material stretches very easily ; by joining
a straight or selvedge edge to a cross one, the former
being stronger supports the latter, and prevents it
stretching as readily. As gores are placed at each side
of a skirt, they must be cut in pairs, or the straight
edges of the one side will fall to the back instead of the
front. For this reason it is frequently more economical
to cut out the skirt before the bodice or sleeves, so as to
utilise any pieces which may be left from cutting the
gores.
The object of goring is twofold : —
1st. To reduce the weight by taking out all super-
fluous material.
2nd. To improve the appearance and comfort by
(a) Decreasing the fulness at the hips and waist ;
(6) Increasing the fulness at the bottom.
Skirts should never measure less than two and a half
yards round the bottom, and they sometimes are as much
as five yards, but more than that for an average figure
cannot be called graceful.
1. Housemaids' Skirts. — Usually these skirts are
made of print ; they may or may not be gored, but they
are never lined. They can be out from four widths of
thirty-inch print, one being for the front, two for the side
gores and one for the back ; it is possible, however, with
reversible material such as gingham to cut a very fair skirt
out of three widths — one for the front, one for the two side
143
HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
gores and one for the back. If a wide skirt is desired, two
widths may be put in the back, or if reversible, the aide
pieces out to make two gores at each side. The widths
are cut with one to one and a, half inches for hollowing
at the waist, and sufficient for a hem or facings at the
bottom added to the actual length of the skirt. Front
widths are narrowed at the top three or four inches on
either side, or else to half of the bottom width ; side
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gores may be narrowed one-third their width at the top
on one side only, or if cut into two gores, with one-third
of the width at the top and two-thirds of the width at the
bottom. In making, begin by joining the pieces together,
taking care that they meet exactly at the top. Some
workers join these seams with French or mantua-maker's
seams, so as to leave no raw edges on the wrong side ;
others again prefer stitching or machining them after-
SKIRTS, 143
wards, and overcasting the edges so that the seams may
be laid open. If the skirt is joined to the bodice, the
placket-hole or opening is put in the seam nearest the
front on the left-hand side ; but if it is put into a separate
band, the seam nearest the back on the left-hand side is
chosen. For the former the right-hand side of the opening
(eight to ten inches long) is faced with a false hem about
one and a half to two inches wide ; on the left-hand side
a double fold is laid to lie underneath the right-hand
hem. This is cut about four inches wide and back-
stitched on to the right side, turned over on to the
wrong, and the edge slip-hemmed down to the wrong
side just over the first row of stitches. When, however,
the placket-hole is placed towards the back, the side of the
opening nearest the centre of the back (that is, the right-
hand side when viewed from the back) is faced and the
double fold put opposite, because whether fastened from
the front or the back, all women's clothing must fasten
from right to left. The fulness at the top is gathered
slightly all round the front and over the hips, and the
remainder gauged or gathered into the back, which
should be from four to six inches wide when finished.
When the dress is made in one the band is placed all round
the waist of the bodice beginning at the button stand, and
an extra portion is carried beyond the buttonholes to the
left under-arm seam. In front, the centre of the skirt is
placed to the centre of the band, and the portion on the
left as far as the placket-hole is put into the loose portion
of the band ; the remainder of the skirt is joined to the
band from the left under-arm seam, round the back to
the centre front. This will leave the front left-hand side
of the bodice loose from the skirt, and a button and
buttonhole must be put on the bodice and skirt bands
144 HOUSEHOLD SEWING,
to prevent it slipping away during wear. When the
skirt is made entirely separate from the bodice the
back width is gathered closely, and the front and hips
eased or slightly gathered into the remainder of the
band. After completing the band the correct length is
measured down, and the bottom turned back and tacked
from the right side in order to keep it even and well
rounded. The wrong side may be faced or hemmed ; if
the former method is adopted, the facing must be cut on
the cross, and will look better if it is made of the same
material as the skirt. The facing may be hemmed on at
both edges, or machined to the bottom, turned back and
machined or hemmed at the top. The bottom is finally
finished with a braid ; it is wiser to first shrink the braid
by plunging it into boiling water and then allowing it to
dry thoroughly. It is folded in two and back-hemmed
on to the wrong side, with the fold about one-sixteenth
of an inch beyond the bottom edge of the skirt.
II. (1) Lined or Walking Skirts. — Lined skirts are
the most popular of all, partly because they are simple
to make as well as comfortable to wear. They are lined
with silk, linenette, alpaca, etc., and on account of the
extra bulk of the lining are almost always gored. The
amount of the goring varies considerably every season, but
an average width round the bottom is three and three-
quarter yards. Three kinds of gored skirts may be noted :
(1) woollen, or double-width material, (2) silk, or single-
width, (3) girls'. On an average, three widths of double-
width material are required for a walking skirt, one for the
front, one for the side gores and one for the back. The
front width at the top is gored on either side one-quarter
of its width, thus the top will measure half as much as
the bottom. Each side gore will take half of the second
SKIRTS. I4S
width, and a half or a third of this is gored oft from the top.
If a wider ekirt is desired, this width of material may be
opened and gored like a housemaid's skirt by cutting it
into two gores, each measuring one-third of the width at
the top and two-thirds of the width at the bottom. When
the material is do n- reversible, two widths will be required
for these gores, and the material cut off from them
may be utilised for the bodice. The back width is some-
times narrowed a little on either side at the top, or again
sometimes cut in two, and one-third narrowed off each
piece in the centre at the top, thus bringing one biassed-
Fia, 61— Walking SWrt of Double-width Material.
cut seam down the middle instead of two on either side
of the back. In taking the measurement for a walking
skirt, it is usual to take the front from the waist down to
the ground, and then deduct two or two and a half inches.
The slope from the back to the front waist varies from
one and a half to three or even four inches according
to the amount of goring.
After the skirt has been cut out, the material is pinned
well to the hning, and unlike bodices rtust on no account
be stretched. If the bottom is to be stiffened, the stiffen-
ing (horsehair, vririno, canvas, muslin, etc.) is laid on to
146 HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
the lining underneath the material from six to ten inches
deep — more than this will make the skirt too heavy.
Sometimes the stiffening is machined to the Uning, but
as that makes it difficult to remove if it should lose its
stifi&iess, it is more usually Hghtly sewn with the hand.
The material ought to be well baisted to the lining, not
only round the edge, but also down the centre of each
piece, and this is most easily done if laid flat on a table
with the material uppermost. The seams are next firmly
tacked or baisted together, bringing them even at the top,
and any unevenness at the bottom is rounded off when
the skirt is turned up ; for beginners, it is advisable to
rule a line with chalk down each seam exactly where
the sewing is to be done. Care must be taken not to
stretch the bias seams, and in order to avoid this, the
pieces should be tacked while still on the table, the seams
being first pinned and the edges tightly held. If securely
tacked all the seams may be machined from the top
downwards, so as to let the stitches strain in the same
direction ; otherwise, the straight edge must be upper-
most to prevent the bias side stretching. The Hning
and material are sometimes joined separately ; this
method involves a considerable amount of extra trouble,
as it necessitates the bias seams of the material being
strengthened with galloon or narrow strips of linen,
and also each seam requires the turnings to be sewn to
those of the material before finally joining up the
back. This last seam is made in the material only, and
the lining slip-hemmed on to it. Skirts thus made look
decidedly neater when finished, but, unless the worker
is experienced, she will find great trouble in making
the lining exactly the same size as the material. Darts
at the waist in the front and side gores are a matter
SKIRTS. 147
of fashion ; in no case should they exceed four inches
in length, and they should seldom take in more than
one and a half to two inches at the top. If carried
down too far they cause the skirt to bulge and appear
full below; they may be either curved or slanted as
the figure requires, and two in the front width and
one or two in each of the side gores are generally suf-
ficient. The side seams nearest the front are frequently
taken in at the top after the manner of a dart, but
the amount thus taken is usually graduated off down
the seam in a curve over the hips about six or seven
inches long. When darted, the front and side gores of
these sku*ts should measure the exact size of the waist ;
when eased very slightly on to the baud, this will bring
the side-back seams well under the pleats or gathers
at the back. With pleated backs the skirt must be well
gored, so as to fall well out at the bottom like a fan,
and not be clumsy and thick at the waist. To ensure
the darts and fulness being well arranged, it is better
to fit them on the figure before the final sewing; at
the same time the length of the front hips and back
should be marked, as many persons need the hips longer
or the back shorter than the front. All the seams and
darts require good pressing ; thick materials may possibly
need damping, but it must be very sUght or the material
will shrink and pucker on the right side. Before press-
ing, the seams are laid open, pared to about half an
inch of the stitching, and the edges overcast. The
skirt is sewn to the lower edge of the band on the
right side, and then made neat by a covering of the
same material or binding. Two mantle hooks and eyes
and two loops for hanging up complete the waistband.
The bottoms of these skirts are better faced than hemmed,
148 HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
as they lie flatter ; unless very thick, the facing is made
of the skirt material, partly for appearance^ and partly
because the material wears better than the cotton lining,
besides allowing dust to be more readily removed. All
such facings are cut on the cross, or else rounded to
the shape of the skirt ; but as the latter takes a great
deal of material, the former plan is usually adopted.
The top and bottom edges of the facing are turned in
once and well pressed, and, after the skirt has been
measured, tacked back the right length and pared, it
is tacked on the wrong side about one-eighth of an
inch from the edge of the skirt. Then both edges of the
facing are slip-hemmed, and if the skirt is much gored,
the top edge will require a few small pleats to make
it lie evenly and smoothly. When the bottom is
finished, it should present an imbroken circular line,
and in tacking back the edges it will materially help the
worker if this line is first drawn in chalk. This line
has, however, occasionally to be broken with full-pleated
backs, because the under part of a pleat requires to be
shorter than the upper. In order to test this^ place the
skirt on a dress stand, and when the bottom edge is
looked at from underneath^ the portions which hang
longer than the top of the pleat must be shortened to
the same length. Thus, when viewed from below, the
bottom edge must appear the same length, although
when the skirt is laid open it will seem to be uneven.
The effect when worn will be regular, and if the pleats are
not shortened underneath, their edges will cut and wear
out very quickly. The bottom must be well pressed when
finished^ and the edge braided as in a housemaid's skirt.
(2) Silk OF Single-width Skirts.- Owing to the
narrow width of silk and similar materials, the skirts
must be cut differently, Usually silk is only used for
evening and houee dresses, conflequently they are made
a little longer, from one to one and a half inches only
off the ground. If made with trains, they mast be
sufficiently wide to flow easily at the feet ; the train
generally forms port of the back widths only, the adjoin-
ing side gores being sloped very slightly towards the
back to meet it, but when on the figure, the hips and
sides must not appear to be any longer than the front.
Plain gored silk skirts require at least Eve widths, one
for the front, two for the sides and two for the back.
Fio. 62-SkM of Silk or SiDgle-niiUh Hnteriat.
The front widths are narrowed at the top to halt the
width at the bottom. The side widths, if reversible silk,
will cut either into two gores for each side {keeping
the usual plan of dividing the widths into one-tliird at
the top and two-thirds at the bottom) or into one for
each side by sloping off one-third or one-half the width at
the top. The back widths may be straight, or gored like
the sides, or a few inches sloped off from the top to half-
way down the sides (at one edge only) and joined on to
the lower half, making a small wedge-shaped gore Uke
tjo
HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
those used for ni^tdreaseB, chemises, etc The bias
edges may be joiaed together for the centre seam, or the
centre may have the two selvedges joined, tind the bias
sides joined to the side gores. Silk skirts are lined with
glac4 silk, polonaise, sateen, etc.: they should be aewn
Tvith silk or lustre thread, aod for very thin material an
interlining of leno or stiff muslin, put in the back widths,
adds greeitly to the general appearance. Velvets, vel-
veteens, etc., are cut on the same principles, only as the
pile will not bear reversing, more widths will be needed
to cut the gores : all further processes of making these
skirts are precisely the same as for double- width
materials.
(3) OIpIb' Sldrts. — For girls aged from twelve to
fourteen years two widths of double-width material are
PiQ. 63— Girl'a Skirt of Double-width Material.
sufficient. One width cuts the front and stde gores by
sloping off two-thirds at the top and one-third at the
bottom of the doubled material. The selvedges of the
gores (if reversible) are joined to the front, and the other
width of material is joined to the bias sides for the back.
The back may also be gored if desired, but for hard wear
the straight width will prove more satisfactory ; if the
material is very strong and thick only the front and side
gores need be lined. For younger girls the two widths
SKIRTS. 151
are frequently joined together without goring; all girls*
skirts should be made with natural hems so as to make
provision for growing. They are also usually joined to
the bodice, the top being gathered all the way round, but
as much of the fulness put to the back as possible. If
the bodice is fastened down the back the placket-hole is
made to correspond ; otherwise, it is finished off like a
housemaid's skirt.
III. Draped Skirts. — At the present time draped
skirts are practically obsolete ; they consist of a loose
foundation of silk, alpaca, sateen, etc., with the dress
material draped over it. The foundation is cut in the
same way as a housemaid's or girl's skirt, and when
finished, should not measure less than two and a quarter
yards, and not more than two and three-quarter yards,
round the bottom. The right side of the bottom is either
faced with material, or covered with kiltings or frills over
which the draping falls. The allowance of material for a
kilt is two to two and a half times the amount required
when finished, and about one and a half times for a frill.
No general rules can be given for draping ; personal skill
and artistic taste being the most important adjuncts to
its success. The fall of any folds which may form part of
the draping adds to or detracts from the appearance of
the wearer ; for instance, folds across or roimd the figure
give width, folds down (e.g., lengthwise) add to the
height, while diagonal or cross folds add to both width
and height. Draping, unless well and artistically done,
will never improve the appearance of any figure, but
when successfully accomplished it may be the means of
screening many abnormal deficiencies.
Pockets cannot be omitted from the making and
cutting of skirts. There are two principal shapes: (1)
152 HOUSEHOLD SEWING.
bag- or sack-Bhuped, (2) pear-shaped. Both are made of
lining; usually sufficient is left for them from the two
yards supplied for the bodice. Linenette and dark
coloured hnings ought not to be used, as the dye will
rub off on to the contents of the pocket ; therefore, for
dark-coloured dresses, bodice lining is undoubtedly the
best, as the light side may be placed to the inside, and
the black side will not be conspicuous next to the skirt
lining. For the bag-shaped pocket a piece of lining
about twelve inches long and a tew inches wider is
required. This is folded into two widthwise, and from
;;^ i Uk I fTOjHH-l p g^
FlO. 64— A, Bsg-ataped ; B, Tear-aliaped,
the top a small portion is sloped off from about one or
two inches from the fold to two or three inches down the
outside edge. The inside of the pocket at the top is
faced with a piece of dress material about four inches
deep in the centre, and then the sides and bottom are joined
together with a French hem. The pear-shaped pocket,
BO called from its resemblance in shape to the fruit, con-
sists of two pieces of lining, twelve to fourteen inches
long and eight to ten broad. The bottom of each piece
is rounded and the sides sloped off at the top, which
should only be left about two inches wide. One piece
has a slit down the centre four to five inches long and
SKIRTS, 153
about two inches from the top ; each piece is faced about
half-way down on the inside with material (the slit is also
made through this facing). The two pieces are joined
together all the way round with a French hem, taking
care that the first row of stitching is done with the inside
of the pocket uppermost; the second row is done after
the pocket has been turned on to the wrong side through
the slit. Both pockets are placed on the right-hand side
of the skirt under a fold, and as far back as possible,
about three to four inches below the waistband. Unless
altogether inconvenient, in which case a slit is made in
the skirt, it is put in a seam, which must be opened
suflBciently far for the hand to pass through comfortably.
The pockets are sewn in from the wrong side of the skirt,
the inside of the pocket opening being placed to the right
side of the opened seam. The slanted top edge is the
part thus sewn on the bag pocket, and the small straight
part at the top is finally made into a box pleat and sewn
well together, but not down to the skirt. The slit of the
pear-shaped pocket is the portion sewn into the skirt, and
this must be the same size as the opening in the seam.
Pockets are best sewn in by hand, the seams well over-
cast, and the top secured to the waistband with tape. If
the pocket has been properly faced and put in the lining
will not be visible from the right side.
INDEX.
Alpaca, 112.
Alterations, 129.
Aniline dyes, 104.
Animal dyes, 103.
Back hemming, 31.
Back stitching, 7.
Baisting, 28.
Bands, 54.
Basket stitch. See smocking.
Basque, 136.
Beige, 118.
Bengaline, 106.
Biassing, 83.
Binding, 60.
Bodices, 46. 119.
Bolster-case, 35.
Boning, 135.
Braid, 144.
Breakfast dam. See crosscut.
Brocade, 107.
Buttons, 62, 133.
Buttonholing (blanket stitch), 18.
Buttonhole stitch, 64.
Buttonholes, 62, 133.
Cable stitch. See smocking.
Calico, 114.
Calico patches, 74.
Cambric, 117.
Camisoles, 46.
Canvas, 113.
Cashmere, 111.
Casing, 33.
Chain stitch, 16.
Chemises, 38.
China silk, 107.
Clothing, 94.
Cloths, 112.
Collar, 137.
Combinations, 42.
Conduction, 94.
Coral stitch See feather stitch.
Corded silks, 106.
Corduroy, 108.
Cotton, 100.
Cotton materials, 114.
Counter hemming, 51. ^
Crape, 107.
Cr^pon, 113.
Crosscut dam, 93.
Cross stitch, 17*
Cutting out, 85, 120.
Damask dams, 87t 88.
Damask patches, 79.
Darning, 83.
Diagonal darn. See crosscut.
Dimity, 116.
Draped skirts, 151.
Drawers, 40.
Drawing, 83.
Drawn-thread work, 1, 22.
Dressmaking stitches, 28.
Dress patches, 80.
Dress seams, 52, 131.
Drill, 116.
Dyeing, 103.
Embboidert, 1.
Embroidery stitch, 19.
Evaporation, 94.
Eyelet holes, 69.
Facinqb, 144.
Pap of stitches, 33,
156
INDEX.
Fastenings, 62, 133.
Feather stitch, 14, 27.
Feathers, 96.
FeUs, 47.
Fine drawing, 13, 82.
Fitting, 124.
Flannel, 113.
Flannel patch, 77.
Flannel seams, 53.
Flannel skirts, 45.
Flannelette, 117.
Foulard, 107.
Foul6, 110.
French hem, 50.
French merino, 111.
Frill, 151.
Fulness, 129.
FulUng, 97, 110.
Fustian, 108.
Fur, 96.
Galatea, 117.
Gathering, 11.
Gauging, 31.
Gauze, 113.
German hemming, 51.
German rolled hem, 49.
Gingham, 115.
Girl's skirt, 150.
Gores, 140.
Grenadine, 113.
Gros grain silk, 106.
Gussets, 57.
Haib, 97.
Healthy clothing, 94.
Hedge-tear dam, 91.
Hemming, 9.
Hems, 9.
Hem stitching, 21.
Hemp, 102.
Herringbone stitch, 10.
Holland, 118.
Homespuns, 112.
Honeycombing, 25.
Hooks and eyes, 67.
Housemaids' skirts^ 141.
XNDI4-RUBBEB, 102r
Jean, 116.
Jute, 102.
KiLTINGS, 151.
Knotting, 23.
Lacing, 134.
Lawn, 117.
Leather, 102.
Lined skirts, 144.
Linen, 101, 117.
Linenette, 116.
Linings, 116.
Linsey, 113.
Loops, 68, 139.
Lustre, 112.
Mantua-maker's hem, 52.
Mending, 72.
Milliner's hemming, 31.
Milling, 110.
Mohair, 111.
Moire silk. See watered.
Mungo, 112.
Muslin, 115.
Net, 113.
Nightdresses, 43.
Non-conduction, 94.
Nuns' veiling, 113.
Old German seam, 13.
Organzine, 99.
Ornamental stitches, 14.
Ottoman silk, 106.
Outline stitch, 19.
Overcasting, 29.
Patching, 72.
Peau de sole, 106.
Pile fabrics, 108.
Pillow-case, 35.
Piqu^, 116.
Placket-hole, 143.
Plain dams, 85.
Plain stitches, 3.
Plush, 108.
Pocket, 151.
Polonaise^ 116,
INDEX.
157
Pongee silk, 107.
Poplins, 106.
Pressing, 182.
Prints, 116.
Print patches, 80.
Badiation, 94.
Bepairing, 72.
Bope stitch. See smocking.
Bun and fell, 48.
Banning, 2, 3.
Bunning darn, 84.
Sateen, 115.
Satin, 106.
Scissors, 38.
Seaming, 47.
Seaming stitch, 6, 7.
Seeding. See knotting.
Serge, 111.
Sericin, 99.
Serrations. See wool.
Sew and fell, 48.
Sheets, 36.
Shirring, 31.
Shirts, 44.
Shoddy, 112.
Shrinking. See pressing.
Silesia, 116.
Silk, 106.
Singles, 99.
Single- width skirts, 148.
Skins, 102.
Skirts, 46, 140.
Sleeves, 138.
Slip bodices, 46.
Slip stitching, 31.
Smocking, 26.
Soft silk, 107.
Sources of clothing materials, 96.
Stitching, 3, 4, 6.
Stitch and fell, 49.
Stocking-web dams, 87.
Stranding, 89.
Stretching, 123.
Striking, 2, 3.
Stroking, 65.
Surah, 106.
Swiss darning, 87.
Tablecloths, 36.
Tacking, 28, 119, 122, 145.
Tailor's patch, 81.
Tapes, 70.
Triangular darn. See hedge-
tear.
Tucks, 58.
Turnings, 128.
Tussore silk, 107.
Tweeds, 112.
Undebgarmekts, 35.
Underskirts, 46.
Velvets, 108.
Velveteens, 108.
Waistbands, 139.
Walking skirts. See lined skirts.
Washing silk, 107.
Watered silk, 106.
Waterproofing, 102, 106.
Whippmg, 12.
Widths of materials, 104, 106.
Wincey, 113.
Wool, 97.
Woollen materials, 109.
Zbphybs, 116.
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